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OBJECTIVE Bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), a popular zoological companion species, frequently require sedation for procedures. A novel formulation of alfaxalone with preservatives was FDA approved for 28-day use after the vial is breached. Research has been performed in squamate species using alfaxalone without preservatives at various doses and routes of administration, but it is unknown whether preservatives affect quality of sedation or cardiac function. ANIMALS 10 bearded dragons. PROCEDURES This complete crossover study evaluated the pharmacodynamic effects of alfaxalone with preservatives administered to bearded dragons via intracoelomic (ICo; n = 10), SC (10), IM (9), and IV (9) injection at 15 mg/kg. RESULTS Deep sedation was achieved in 9 of 10 ICo, 8 of 10 SC, 8 of 9 IM, and 9 of 9 IV administrations. Heart rate significantly decreased from baseline for ICo (P = .008; median heart rate, 46), IM (P = .018; 54), and IV (P = .033; 54) routes, but maintained within clinically acceptable limits. Respiratory rate significantly decreased from baseline for ICo (P = .011; median respiratory rate, 30), SC (P = .024; 12), IM (P = .028; 12), and IV (P = .043; 12) routes. Spontaneous ventilation was retained during all events. Time to first effects was significantly sooner with IV (0 min) administration compared with ICo (P = .02; 5 min) and IM (P = .008; 5 min). Time to loss and recovery of withdrawal, righting reflex, deep pain, and purposeful movement were not significantly different between routes of administration. End-systolic volume was the only echocardiographic parameter significantly affected by IV sedation. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Sedation quality was most consistent via IV administration at 15 mg/kg, and minimal changes in cardiac function were observed.

Monitoring blood lactate concentrations with a handheld, point-of-care (POC) meter is an efficient and inexpensive method of monitoring critically ill or anesthetized exotic patients. Serial monitoring of lactate allows early recognition of hypoperfusion, allowing for prompt implementation of resuscitative efforts. Reference ranges for exotic animals are currently sparse and often gathered from field studies of wild animals. In the absence of reference ranges, extrapolations can be made regarding mammals and birds, but may be more difficult in reptiles and amphibians.

OBJECTIVE To characterize induction and recovery characteristics of 3 commonly used inhalant anesthetics in prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis): isoflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane. ANIMALS 12 healthy adult prairie rattlesnakes. PROCEDURES In a randomized crossover design, snakes underwent anesthetic induction with 5% isoflurane, 8% sevoflurane, or 18% desflurane, with a washout period of ≥ 7 days between anesthetic events. Anesthetic depth parameters were recorded throughout induction and recovery, including time to loss and return of righting reflex, muscle tone, ability to intubate, response to pressure, and time to return to spontaneous respiration. Every 5 minutes throughout the anesthetic procedures, heart rate, respiratory rate, and percentage expired anesthetic gas were recorded. RESULTS No snakes died during the study. Sevoflurane anesthesia resulted in anesthetic gas avoidance behavior in snakes during induction and had the significantly longest recovery time to extubation and time to return of pressure response, compared with the other inhalant anesthetics. Anesthesia with isoflurane resulted in a significantly longer time to return of righting reflex, compared with sevoflurane or desflurane. No significant difference was noted in time to loss of pressure response among the 3 anesthetic gases. Desflurane anesthesia resulted in the significantly quickest loss of righting reflex among the anesthetic protocols; despite this, 4 of 12 desflurane anesthetized snakes did not achieve an anesthetic plane deep enough for intubation. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Isoflurane and sevoflurane, but not desflurane, inhalation anesthesia resulted in consistent and predictable loss of righting reflex and induction of anesthesia deep enough to allow intubation in snakes.

Anesthetic drugs must be delivered at the appropriate dose and route of administration to produce the expected anesthetic effects. This is important for patient safety because anesthetic drugs function by depressing the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, which if improperly dosed or administered could cause potentially life-threatening effects. Several routes of administration and different drug delivery methods are available to safely and reliably anesthetize zoologic companion animal patients. Because of the nature of zoologic companion animal practice, anesthetic procedures pose risks that the anesthetist should understand to carefully plan procedures that are as safe and efficient as possible.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the anesthetic and cardiorespiratory effects of IM alfaxalone and isoflurane administration in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) and compare use of these agents with use of manual restraint. ANIMALS 42 healthy budgerigars. PROCEDURES For dose comparison, birds received alfaxalone (5 or 10 mg/kg [2.27 or 4.54 mg/lb], IM; groups A5 and A10, respectively; n = 6/group). For treatment comparison, birds received alfaxalone (10 mg/kg, IM) or isoflurane (via face mask) or were manually restrained (groups A, I, and M, respectively; n = 10/group). Data were obtained on onset, degree, and duration of sedation or anesthesia; heart and respiratory rates; and recovery times. Birds in the treatment comparison underwent physical examination and blood gas analysis. RESULTS All group A5 birds became sedate, but not recumbent. In group A10, 5 of 6 birds lost the righting reflex; however, none lost the noxious stimulus response. Median time to initial effects was significantly shorter and mean time to complete recovery was significantly longer in group A10 than in group A5. Heart and respiratory rates in group A10 remained clinically acceptable; however, some birds had signs of excitement during induction and recovery. Times to initial effects, recumbency, and complete recovery were significantly longer, yet clinically practical, in group A than in group I. Plasma lactate concentrations were significantly higher in group M than in groups A and I. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Alfaxalone administered IM at 10 mg/kg produced effective sedation in healthy budgerigars and may be a viable alternative to isoflurane and manual restraint for brief, minimally invasive procedures. Brief manual restraint resulted in a significant increase in plasma lactate concentration.

Acute-phase proteins (APP) are the foundation to the innate immune response and valuable biomarkers that increase with inflammation, infection, neoplasia, stress, and trauma.2,4,16 Little is known about the acute-phase response in cetaceans and if these proteins can be used for health monitoring in individuals and free-ranging populations. The purpose of this study was to characterize serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA), as well as electrophoretic profiles of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in free-ranging (n = 33) and professional care (n = 27) settings. Results were correlated to commonly utilized inflammatory indices including erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), fibrinogen, total white blood cell count (WBC), and absolute neutrophil count. SAA levels, measured with a dolphin-specific enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), were significantly higher (P = 0.05) in free-ranging dolphins (mean = 4.26; SE = 1.12) when compared with those under professional care (mean = 1.82; SE = 0.45). For dolphins under professional care, a statistically significant correlation was identified between ESR and Hp (P < 0.001; r = 0.69), ESR and SAA (P < 0.001; r = 0.67), fibrinogen and Hp (P = 0.001; r = 0.58), and fibrinogen and SAA (P = 0.002; r = 0.56). In addition, there was a significant correlation between WBC and SAA (P = 0.01; r = 0.38) and absolute neutrophil count and SAA (P = 0.04; r = 0.32). There were no significant correlations between study variables observed in free-ranging dolphins. The variable correlation of APPs with commonly utilized inflammatory indices demonstrates that these proteins are independent measures of inflammation with unique sensitivity, specificity, and timeline of expression. The results of this study contribute to improved health monitoring of dolphins and have the potential to assist in identification of compromised health.

To characterize induction and recovery characteristics of 3 commonly used inhalant anesthetics in prairie rattlesnakes (12 healthy adult prairie rattlesnakes.In a randomized crossover design, snakes underwent anesthetic induction with 5% isoflurane, 8% sevoflurane, or 18% desflurane, with a washout period of ≥ 7 days between anesthetic events. Anesthetic depth parameters were recorded throughout induction and recovery, including time to loss and return of righting reflex, muscle tone, ability to intubate, response to pressure, and time to return to spontaneous respiration. Every 5 minutes throughout the anesthetic procedures, heart rate, respiratory rate, and percentage expired anesthetic gas were recorded.No snakes died during the study. Sevoflurane anesthesia resulted in anesthetic gas avoidance behavior in snakes during induction and had the significantly longest recovery time to extubation and time to return of pressure response, compared with the other inhalant anesthetics. Anesthesia with isoflurane resulted in a significantly longer time to return of righting reflex, compared with sevoflurane or desflurane. No significant difference was noted in time to loss of pressure response among the 3 anesthetic gases. Desflurane anesthesia resulted in the significantly quickest loss of righting reflex among the anesthetic protocols; despite this, 4 of 12 desflurane anesthetized snakes did not achieve an anesthetic plane deep enough for intubation.Isoflurane and sevoflurane, but not desflurane, inhalation anesthesia resulted in consistent and predictable loss of righting reflex and induction of anesthesia deep enough to allow intubation in snakes.

Acute-phase proteins (APP) are the foundation to the innate immune response and valuable biomarkers that increase with inflammation, infection, neoplasia, stress, and trauma.

This study documents the pharmacokinetics of oral tramadol in Muscovy ducks. Six ducks received a single 30 mg/kg dose of tramadol, orally by stomach tube, with blood collection prior to and up to 24 hr after tramadol administration. Plasma tramadol, and metabolites O-desmethyltramadol (M1), and N,O-didesmethyltramadol (M5) concentrations were determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence (FL) detection. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated using a one-compartment model with first-order input. No adverse effects were noted after oral administration. All ducks achieved plasma concentrations of tramadol above 0.10 μg/ml and maintained those concentrations for at least 12 hr. Elimination half-life was 3.95 hr for tramadol in ducks, which is similar to other avian species. All ducks in this study produced the M1 metabolite and maintained plasma concentrations above 0.1 μg/ml for at least 24 hr.

The importance of appropriate recognition, assessment, and treatment of pain in all veterinary species, including exotic animals, cannot be overstated. Although the assessment of pain perception in nondomestic species is still in its infancy, this does not preclude appropriate analgesic management in these species. Although analgesic drug selection is often based on data extrapolated from similar species, as the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of many drugs can vary greatly between species, an evidence-based approach to analgesic therapy should be used whenever possible. This article provides an overview of recent advances in evidence-based analgesic management in companion exotic animals.

This study was designed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of clindamycin, a lincosamide antibiotic, in Bennett's wallabies. The pharmacokinetic properties of a single intravenous (IV) dose of clindamycin were determined in six wallabies. A single 20-min IV infusion of 20 mg/kg of clindamycin was administered, followed by blood collection prior to, and up to 12 hr after clindamycin administration. Plasma clindamycin concentrations were determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet (UV) detection. Pharmacokinetic variables were calculated using a two-compartment model with first order elimination which best fit the data. The mean volume of distribution at steady-state, distribution half-life, and elimination half-life were 898.25 ml/kg, 0.16 hr, 1.79 hr, respectively. No adverse effects were noted after IV administration.

Assessment of pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other causes of lameness in penguins can be challenging. Subjective gait analysis using visual observation and response to analgesic therapy can be affected by observer variation and caregiver placebo bias. A pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW), however, allows for objective gait analysis and assessment of analgesic therapeutic response. In this study, a 3-m-long PSW was used to analyze gait in 21 adult Humboldt penguins (

The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of tramadol and meloxicam in an induced, temporary arthritis model in ducks as assessed by ground-reactive forces measured by a pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW) system. Twelve ducks (

Large arachnids are commonly managed under professional care, and anesthesia is occasionally required for physical examination and diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Anesthetic responses and hemolymph gas analysis have been studied previously in spiders, but scorpions have yet to be investigated. This study measured hemolymph gas values with an i-STAT point of care blood gas analyzer in healthy adult Asian forest scorpions (

Intramuscular (IM) administration of either alfaxalone or butorphanol with midazolam was evaluated for sedation and effects on heart and respiratory rates in budgerigars (

Objective gait evaluation with a pressure sensitive walkway (PSW) has been used to assess welfare of poultry and to assess lameness and response to therapy in domestic mammals. Objective gait analysis of birds with lameness due to pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other common diseases could provide non-biased assessment and therapeutic monitoring for zoo clinicians. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of a PSW for objective gait analysis in normal domestic ducks (Cairina moschata domestica) and those with experimentally induced arthritis. Eighteen healthy adult ducks walked across the PSW four times in each experiment at each time point. For experiment 1, gait parameters (step and stride distances and velocities, maximum force, impulse, and peak pressure) were calculated for each foot in each duck (time 0). For experiment 2, six of these ducks were randomly selected, anesthetized, and administered a unilateral intra-tarsal injection of monosodium urate solution to induce arthritis. Serial PSW trials were repeated at 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 24 hours post-injection. Gait parameters were calculated and compared at each time point, including baseline at time 0. Among the normal ducks, there were no significant differences between right and left feet for any gait parameter. Maximum force and impulse were significantly lower for the affected limb at the 3- and 4-hour time points in ducks with unilateral induced arthritis. This asymmetry was resolved by 8 hours post injection. This PSW transient arthritis model allows for objective assessment of lameness in domestic ducks with maximum force and impulse serving as the most sensitive gait parameters for lameness detection. This method has potential as a model to assess analgesic efficacy for zoo-housed waterfowl and other avian species.

The objective of this study was to compare a traditional partially reversible medetomidine-ketamine sedation with a more reversible butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine combination in Bennett's wallabies ( Macropus rufogriseus ) maintained in a zoological collection. Fourteen animals were divided into two treatment groups. Individuals in group 1 received an intramuscular (i.m.) injection of butorphanol (0.54 ± 0.05 mg/kg), azaperone (0.22 ± 0.02 mg/kg), and medetomidine (0.16 ± 0.02 mg/kg). Individuals in group 2 received an i.m. injection of ketamine (5.43 ±1.16 mg/kg) with medetomidine (0.05 ± 0.014 mg/kg). For group 1, sedation was reversed with atipamezole (0.81 ± 0.069 mg/kg i.m.) and naltrexone (1.08 ± 0.09 mg/kg i.m.). For group 2, sedation was reversed with atipamezole (0.27 ± 0.056 mg/kg i.m.). There were no significant differences between the groups in mean time to induction, time spent on gas anesthesia, or time to standing after reversal was administered. Animals in both groups required supplemental gas anesthesia to facilitate intubation. No adverse reactions or effects were noted with either protocol; however, the BAM protocol did not provide sufficient sedation for handling in all animals and may not be suitable for use in this species.

The principles of surgical asepsis apply to field surgeries with few exceptions. The minimum level for performance of surgeries in the field on free-ranging animals should be the same as for domestic animals undergoing surgery in animal hospitals. Surgeries in the field are typically done as part of research and management projects and usually involve a combination of biologists and veterinarians with the possibility of conflicts in scientific cultures. This article outlines a minimum standard of care for field surgeries and will serve as a resource for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees and biologists and veterinarians planning projects that involve surgeries on free-ranging wildlife in field conditions.

An adult, captive-born eastern massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) was examined for a subcutaneous abscess and fistula cranial to the vent. The wound improved initially with lavage and systemic antibiotic therapy, but multiple, scattered, small subcutaneous nodules later developed over the ventrum and lateral aspects of the body. Examination of fine needle aspirates from these nodules revealed granulomatous inflammation and fungal elements morphologically consistent with Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. The animal died before antifungal therapy could be implemented. At necropsy, fungal granulomas were also present in the kidneys, liver, lung, air sac, ovary, and spleen. This case report describes an atypical presentation of systemic ophidiomycosis in a captive-born snake.

Naked mole-rats (NMRs; Heterocephalus glaber) are highly adapted, eusocial rodents renowned for their extreme longevity and resistance to cancer. Because cancer has not been formally described in this species, NMRs have been increasingly utilized as an animal model in aging and cancer research. We previously reported the occurrence of several age-related diseases, including putative pre-neoplastic lesions, in zoo-housed NMR colonies. Here, we report for the first time 2 cases of cancer in zoo-housed NMRs. In Case No. 1, we observed a subcutaneous mass in the axillary region of a 22-year-old male NMR, with histologic, immunohistochemical (pancytokeratin positive, rare p63 immunolabeling, and smooth muscle actin negative), and ultrastructural characteristics of an adenocarcinoma possibly of mammary or salivary origin. In Case No. 2, we observed a densely cellular, poorly demarcated gastric mass of polygonal cells arranged in nests with positive immunolabeling for synaptophysin and chromogranin indicative of a neuroendocrine carcinoma in an approximately 20-year-old male NMR. We also include a brief discussion of other proliferative growths and pre-cancerous lesions diagnosed in 1 zoo colony. Although these case reports do not alter the longstanding observation of cancer resistance, they do raise questions about the scope of cancer resistance and the interpretation of biomedical studies in this model. These reports also highlight the benefit of long-term disease investigations in zoo-housed populations to better understand naturally occurring disease processes in species used as models in biomedical research.

Although nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often used in anurans, limited pharmacodynamic data are available regarding their value, particularly with regards to repeated do...

OBJECTIVE: To determine the intracoelemic (ICe) dose of alfaxalone required to induce loss of righting reflex (LRR) in garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) and to evaluate the tactile stimulus response in unanesthetized and alfaxalone-anesthetized snakes. ANIMALS: 8 healthy mature garter snakes. PROCEDURES: During the first of 3 phases, snakes received each of 3 doses (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg) of alfaxalone, ICe, with a 2-week washout period between treatments. Times to LRR and return of righting reflex were determined after each dose. During phase 2, unanesthetized snakes underwent tactile stimulation testing with Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments once daily for 3 consecutive days to determine the baseline tactile pressure required to elicit purposeful movement. During phase 3, snakes were anesthetized with alfaxalone (30 mg/kg, ICe), and the tactile pressure required to induce purposeful movement was assessed at predetermined times after LRR. RESULTS: Intracoelomic administration of alfaxalone at doses of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg induced LRR in 0, 5, and 8 snakes, respectively. For snakes with LRR, median time to LRR following the 30-mg/kg dose (3.8 minutes) was significantly shorter than that following the 20-mg/kg dose (8.3 minutes); median time to return of righting reflex did not differ between the 2 doses. Mean ± SD tactile pressure that resulted in purposeful movement in unanesthetized snakes was 16.9 ± 14.3 g. When snakes were anesthetized, the mean tactile pressure that resulted in purposeful movement was significantly increased from baseline at 10, 20, and 30 minutes after LRR. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested ICe administration of alfaxalone might be effective for anesthetizing garter snakes.

The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of a noninvasive oscillometric method in relation to invasively measured blood pressure in anesthetized Bennett's wallabies (

Pangolins are one of the most-trafficked endangered species and are rare in zoologic collections. Blood gas and select biochemical analysis was performed on nine African white-bellied tree pangolins (Phataginus tricuspis). Paired blood samples were collected from the ventral tail vasculature prior to (T1) and after 10 min (T2) of sevoflurane anesthesia, and selected blood gas and biochemical parameters were measured using a portable blood gas analyzer. Median (min-max) values for corrected venous blood were pH = 7.372 (7.207–7.529) at T1 and 7.278 (7.124–7.418) at T2. Corrected values were PCO2 = 51.7 (29.6–69.0) mmHg at T1 and 58.431 (38.1–90.8) mmHg at T2. Clinicians should be aware that this species may hypoventilate while anesthetized with sevoflurane and develop a respiratory acidosis. Concomitant administration of respiratory depressants could compound this effect in a species where oro-tracheal intubation has not been described.

Both kidney and adrenal gland disease have been identified in callimicos ( Callimico goeldii). Ultrasonography (US) and computed tomography (CT) are routinely utilized in veterinary patients with suspected renal or adrenal disease to determine size, shape, and echogenicity of these organs. No previous US and CT kidney and adrenal gland measurements have been published for callimicos. In this study, 14 callimicos were anesthetized using isoflurane via facemask to evaluate kidney and adrenal gland size using US for both organs and CT for kidneys. Animals were considered clinically healthy based on history, physical examination, hematology, serum chemistry, urinalysis, and abdominal US. Ultrasound organ measurements for length (L), width (W), and height (H) in centimeters (mean/median, 95% confidence interval) in clinically healthy animals were right kidney (L = 1.90, 1.76-2.01; W = 1.05, 0.97-1.13; H = 1.59, 1.48-1.69), left kidney (L = 1.84, 1.72-1.95; W = 1.16, 1.04-1.28; H = 1.54, 1.43-1.65), right adrenal gland (L = 0.38, 0.33-0.57; H = 0.19, 0.15-0.31) and left adrenal gland (L = 0.36, 0.32-0.39; H = 0.18, 0.17-0.20). All kidney measurements were positively correlated with animal weight ( P0.05) but had no significant correlation to age. Measurements did not have any significant relationship to evaluated blood and urine parameters. Results from this study establish baseline measurements for callimico kidneys and adrenal glands to help clinicians use these imaging modalities for evaluation of these organs in this endangered species.

Two related female snow leopards ( Panthera uncia) were diagnosed with osteochondritis dissecans of the lateral femoral condyle via radiographs and computed tomography. Lesions were either bilateral (Patient 1) or unilateral (Patient 2). Surgical treatment was performed using an osteochondral autograft transfer system following cartilage flap removal. After a 6-wk recovery period, both animals had a markedly improved gait with mild pelvic limb stiffness. Patient 1 developed intermittent lameness 9 mo postsurgery and Patient 2 had mild lameness 3 yr postsurgery. Because of recurrent lameness, both animals were treated with platelet-rich plasma intra-articular injections and oral gabapentin (Patient 1) or oral meloxicam (Patient 2). Full incorporation of autografts was confirmed with computed tomography (both patients) and arthroscopy (Patient 1 only). Osteochondritis dissecans has been previously reported in snow leopards and these cases represent the first reported use of osteochondral autograft repair and platelet-rich plasma to treat the condition.

With the growing popularity in the ownership of nontraditional species, there is a growing need for veterinarians to be able to provide out-of-clinic health assessments on privately owned exotic species. Ambulatory anesthesia is often required for diagnostic and surgical procedures in remote or nonhospital settings. Anesthesia for diagnostic procedures is commonly used to ensure the safety of personnel and exotic veterinary patients, particularly when there is an inability to transport the animal to the clinic. The challenges of exotic animal anesthesia are further compounded by the logistical challenges of performing anesthesia outside of the hospital setting.

Objective To develop a perceived exertion scale for dogs exercising on a treadmill and to assess intra- and inter-observer variability. Materials and methods Fifteen healthy client-owned dogs participated in paired exercise trials. Measurements of lactate, glucose, heart rate, temperature, respiratory rate and regional tissue oximetry were obtained before, during and after exercise. Perceived exertion scale scores were recorded during exercise and using video recordings to evaluate inter-observer variability. Correlations were evaluated using the Spearman's non-parametric method. Results Thirteen dogs completed both trials. Dogs walked or trotted on the treadmill with an average perceived exertion score of 2 in both trials. Holter heart rate was positively correlated with perceived exertion scale scores from all observers for both trials. In trial 1, plasma glucose decreased in association with increase in perceived exertion and, in trial 2, cutaneous oximetry decreased, respiratory rate increased and temperature increased with increases on the perceived exertion scale. Inter-observer perceived exertion scale scores were positively correlated in both trials. There was no intra-observer variability between trials. Clinical significance The perceived exertion scale correlated with the measured physiologic parameters in dogs exercising at mild to moderate intensity. The perceived exertion scale was consistent and repeatable but larger study numbers and further validation are needed before it can be widely applied.

A 13-y-old, multiparous female black-crested mangabey (Lophocebus aterrimus) underwent surgical treatment for chronically recurring rectal prolapse by laparotomy and subsequent colopexy. Initially, a laparoscopic approach was attempted but was converted to an open approach after intraabdominal adhesions were noted. The colopexy was performed through a ventral midline incision, with no complications intraoperatively or postoperatively. The predisposing factors responsible for the development of this condition likely were related to pelvic floor weakness due to multiple past pregnancies. Transport-associated stressors likely contributed to the acute worsening of this patient's condition. Rectal prolapse is a common condition in laboratory-housed NHP. This case report describes an effective surgical treatment for recurring or otherwise nonreducible rectal prolapse in these species.

Objective To determine the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane for ring-tailed lemurs ( Lemur catta ) and aye-ayes ( Daubentonia madagascariensis ). Study design Prospective experimental trial. Animals Six adult ring-tailed lemurs, aged 1.3-11.2 years (median age: 8.26) and weighing a mean ± standard deviation (SD) of 2283 ± 254 g. Five adult aye-ayes, aged 4.4-19.3 years (median age: 8.0) and weighing 2712 ± 191 g. Methods Minimum alveolar concentration of sevoflurane was determined using a tail-clamp stimulus. The end-tidal sevoflurane ( Fe ’Sevo) concentration was increased or decreased by approximately 10% after a positive or negative response to tail clamping, respectively. This procedure was repeated until a positive and negative result were seen on two consecutive trials (i.e. a negative result was achieved and a single 10% decrease in Fe ’Sevo concentration resulted in a positive test). The MAC for that animal was determined to be the mean of the concentrations at the two consecutive trials. Results The mean ± SD MAC of sevoflurane for ring-tailed lemurs was 3.48 ± 0.55% and 1.84 ± 0.17 for aye-ayes. This represents a 47.1% higher MAC in ring-tailed lemurs compared to aye-ayes. Conclusions and clinical relevance The sevoflurane MAC was significantly higher in ring-tailed lemurs, compared to aye-ayes. The MAC of sevoflurane in aye-ayes is consistent with reported MAC values in other species. Extrapolation of sevoflurane anesthetic dose between different species of lemurs could lead to significant errors in anesthetic dosing.

Information regarding analgesics in pinnipeds is limited. This study aimed to establish the pharmacokinetic parameters of a single subcutaneous dose of sustained release buprenorphine (Buprenorphine SR) in juvenile northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) with regard to its potential to provide long-lasting analgesia that requires infrequent dosing. Seals (n=26) were administered a single dose of sustained release buprenorphine at 0.12 mg/kg s.c. Blood samples were collected from the extradural intervertebral vein at 0 hr and at three or four of the following time points: 0.5, 1, 2, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 96, 120, and 144 hr. Seals were examined daily for systemic and local adverse reactions. Plasma was analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry for buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine concentrations. A noncompartmental analysis for pharmacokinetic parameters was calculated using standard methods and equations. An average maximum concentration of 1.21 ng/ml (0.3-2.9 ng/ml) was detected 12 hr postadministration. Concentrations were quantifiable up to 144 hr postadministration but were below those expected to provide analgesia in some other species. No systemic adverse effects were noted in healthy seals receiving sustained release buprenorphine. Cellulitis or abscesses at the injection site were observed in 6/26 (23%) seals between 24 and 168 hr postadministration. Adverse local effects suggest that this drug should be used with caution in northern elephant seals.

There are few reports of coagulation times in marsupial species. Blood samples collected from 14 Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) under anaesthesia during routine health assessments were analysed for prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) using a point-of-care analyser (POC) (Abaxis VSPro®). The wallabies had an aPTT mean of 78.09 s and median of 78.1 s. The PT for all wallabies was greater than 35 s, exceeding the longest time measured on the POC. Although PT was significantly longer, aPTT was similar to the manufacturer's domestic canine reference range.

A 6-yr-old male snow leopard ( Panthera uncia) presented with acute seizures, hyperthermia, and tachypnea. Because of a diagnosis of anuric renal failure, the animal was euthanized. On histopathologic examination, numerous intralesional intracytoplasmic and intranuclear inclusions were found in the lungs, lymph nodes, and stomach. Positive immunohistochemical staining for canine distemper virus (CDV) was found in the lungs and, to a lesser extent, in the lymph nodes and brain. Molecular testing yielded a CDV H gene sequence that was closely related to CDV isolates concurrently found in wild raccoons from adjacent forested areas. The leopard had been vaccinated once against CDV with the use of a recombinant canarypox-vectored live vaccine during a routine wellness examination 12 wk prior to death. Serial serum neutralization titers performed on banked serum collected between vaccination and death showed poor serologic response to the vaccine. This case demonstrates a probable failure of protection against naturally occurring CDV.

CASE DESCRIPTION 2 female red-necked wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) were evaluated because of sudden-onset mandibular swelling, ptyalism, and hyporexia. CLINICAL FINDINGS Physical examination revealed a mandibular swelling with a fluctuant center in both wallabies. Hematologic analysis revealed leukocytosis with a mature neutrophilia and monocytosis in one wallaby (case 1) and a slight neutrophilia, hyperglobulinemia, and high serum alanine aminotransferase activity in the other (case 2). Cytologic examination of the swelling revealed a uniform population of gram-negative rods in case 1 and neutrophilic inflammation in case 2. Radiography revealed a soft tissue mandibular swelling with osteolucency around mandibular incisor roots in both wallabies. Computed tomography revealed changes consistent with chronic active mandibular osteomyelitis and reactive bone formation, but also sequestra formation not appreciable via radiography. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Long-term antimicrobial treatment was initiated with clindamycin (17 to 21 mg/kg [7.7 to 9.5 mg/lb], IV, q 12 h for 40 to 55 days) and high-dose benzathine penicillin G (80,000 U/kg [36,364 U/lb], SC, q 12 h for 150 days). Serial CT was performed to evaluate response to treatment and resolution of disease. A CT scan 18 months after the initial evaluation revealed complete resolution of osteomyelitis and sequestra. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Advanced imaging and long-term treatment and management were integral to the successful outcome for these wallabies, given that the osseous changes visible on CT images were not visible on standard radiographs, guiding therapeutic decision-making. This report provides new therapeutic and diagnostic monitoring information to assist clinicians with similar cases.

Anesthesia and sedation of pet nondomestic species are often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures. Even minimally invasive procedures can be stressful for small prey species that are not domesticated or acclimated to human contact and restraint. Recent advancements in evidence-based practice will continue to improve the field based on scientifically sound best practices and rely less on anecdotal recommendations. This article focuses on new scientific literature that has been published in the past 5 years. For ease of reading, the authors divide the article to highlight advances in anesthetic pharmacology and discoveries in anesthetic physiology and monitoring.

The goal of this study was to determine the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) and cardiopulmonary effects of isoflurane in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta). The MAC of isoflurane was determined by using a tail-clamp stimulus in adult ring-tailed lemurs (6 male, 4 female). Once MAC was determined, another group of 10 adult ring-tailed lemurs (5 male, 5 female) were anesthetized and instrumented similarly as the previous group and maintained at 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 times MAC for 15 min each with no external stimulation. Five lemurs were exposed to increasing concentrations (that is, 0.5 times MAC increasing to 2 times MAC), and the other 5 animals were exposed to decreasing concentrations. MAC of isoflurane for ring-tailed lemurs was 1.9%. The animals became hypotensive, but no significant differences were found in heart rate or systolic, mean, and diastolic blood pressures at the different multiples of MAC examined. At 1 MAC, all lemurs developed a moderate respiratory acidosis, which became more severe at 2 MAC. Given these findings, isoflurane at 0.5 to 2 times MAC in ring-tailed lemurs does not result in predictable depression of blood pressure, but hypoventilation occurs at 1 MAC or greater.

Perianesthetic hypothermia is one of the most common complications in veterinary anesthesia, especially in small patients with a large body surface area to mass ratio. During anesthesia, body heat can be lost through 4 mechanisms—radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation—but anesthetists frequently address only one mechanism at a time. Here we sought to evaluate 3 methods of preventing perianesthetic hypothermia in callimicos (Callimico goeldii). In our experience, these small NHP routinely become hypothermic under even brief inhalant anesthesia. To address multiple routes of heat loss, animals received 1 of 3 treatments: 1) placement of a reflective blanket over the patient to limit radiative heat loss to the surrounding environment; 2) placement of a reflective blanket and use of a heated anesthetic circuit, which warmed the inspired air to 104 °F (40 °C), and 3) placement under the patient of a forced-air warming blanket set at 109.4 °F (43 °C). Sources of radiative heat loss were assessed by using infrared thermography. Each animal was anesthetized with isoflurane and maintained in sternal recumbency in a temperature-controlled room (65 °F; 18.3 °C); esophageal core body temperature was monitored every 5 min for a total of 30 min. The rate of heat loss did not differ between the use of a reflective blanket with or without a heated anesthetic circuit. Animals provided the forced-air warming blanket experienced a slight increase in average body temperature. According to these findings, an underbody warm-air blanket provided the best protection against hypothermia for callimicos in sternal recumbency.

Assessment of pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other causes of lameness in penguins can be challenging. Subjective gait analysis using visual observation and response to analgesic therapy can be affected by observer variation and caregiver placebo bias. A pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW), however, allows for objective gait analysis and assessment of analgesic therapeutic response. In this study, a 3-m-long PSW was used to analyze gait in 21 adult Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Medical record reviews and comprehensive examinations were performed on all penguins; five penguins were considered abnormal, with either right-sided (n = 3) or bilateral historical lameness-causing disease (n = 2) and were analyzed separately from the normal data set. All penguins walked across the PSW four times and gait parameters (step and stride distances and velocities, maximum force, impulse, and peak pressure) were calculated for each foot in each penguin. Statistical comparisons were made between right and left feet, sexes, and normal and abnormal penguins for each gait parameter. Among normal penguins, there were no significant differences between feet or sex. Left step width was shorter in abnormal penguins than that of normal penguins. Study results established baseline values for Humboldt penguins. This will allow objective monitoring of progression and response to therapy in penguin lameness cases, both current and future. The data also provide a foundation to compare gait parameters with other penguin populations and species.

Intraocular pressure was measured using rebound tonometry in American flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber), with the head in an upright standing position and when lowered in a feeding position, to establish a reference range. Mean ± standard deviation (SD) (range) intraocular pressure for flamingos with the head in an upright position was right eye (OD) = 10.9 ± 1.8 mm Hg (7–15 mm Hg) and left eye (OS) = 11.1 ± 2.3 mm Hg (8–21 mm Hg). Median intraocular pressure for flamingos with the head in an upright position was OD and OS = 11 mm Hg. Mean intraocular pressure for flamingos with the head in a feeding position was OD = 14.3 ± 2.5 mm Hg (10–22 mm Hg) and OS = 14.4 ± 2.7 mm Hg (11–24 mm Hg), which were significantly higher. Median intraocular pressure for flamingos with the head in a feeding position was OD and OS = 14 mm Hg.

This study was designed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of meloxicam, an oxicam class, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), in ferrets. We determined the pharmacokinetic properties of a single subcutaneous dose of meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg) in nine male and nine female ferrets. Blood samples were collected by venipuncture of the cranial vena cava into heparinized syringes. Plasma meloxicam concentrations were determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Pharmacokinetic variables were calculated using nonlinear mixed-effects modeling to take advantage of the population-based sampling scheme and to minimize sample volume collected per animal. Maximum plasma concentration, volume of distribution per absorption, and elimination half-life were 0.663 μg/mL, 0.21 L, and 11.4 h, respectively, for females and 0.920 μg/mL, 0.35 L, and 17.8 h, respectively, for males. Significant differences were found in each of the above parameters between male and female ferrets. Systemic clearance per absorption was not affected by gender and was 13.4 mL/h. Analgesic efficacy was not evaluated, but plasma meloxicam concentrations achieved in these animals are considered effective in other species. Sex differences in the pharmacokinetic behavior of meloxicam should be taken into consideration when treating ferrets.