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This article sharpens consideration of aspects of policy transfer to address climate change and gives greater attention to the context that might support efficient adaptive resilience. Using the example of Australian reforms to water policy, we evaluate how different elements of policy proved more (less) successful in facilitating efficient adaptation to climate variability and thus expose elements that might be more (less) attractive as candidates for policy transfer. Overall, we find that Australian policy reforms in the water sector provide useful guidance in some instances and not others. Establishing caps on extraction, flexible water markets and individual carry over rights generally facilitated flexible and efficient adaptation, and could be transferred. Related policy concepts, like formulating clear water planning rules and entitlements, are worth considering for implementation elsewhere, even if the groundwork on governance is a prerequisite. We also note the importance of shaping drought responses from government in such a way as not to distort the incentives for individual adaptation, and there is some evidence of this working in the Australian setting. Achieving transferability of these policies, however, may be a challenge. Australian policies around ‘hard infrastructure’ investments have generally proved less desirable and ideally should not be considered as a roadmap. These relate specifically to: (1) extravagant augmentation of urban supply; (2) using infrastructure to supposedly improve irrigation efficiency for environmental water provision; and (3) governments’ infrastructure responses after flooding. None of these approaches is consistent with the aim of fostering adaptation to a more variable climatic future. Key policy insights Australian water policies that have focussed on capping water extractions, development of flexible markets and specifying rights to allow greater flexibility have generally worked well against a changing climate, and could be transferred. The development of clear planning rules and entitlements also proved important, although the conditions to favour transfer are difficult to engender. Policies dealing with hard physical infrastructure have proven problematic and their adoption elsewhere is discouraged, even if transfer is more amenable. Encouraging more individual adaptation to flooding is a particularly significant challenge, even in a country renowned for drought. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

In this paper we describe our early, qualitative work on “teacher talk moves” such as revoicing , situated within the urban classrooms of highly skilled teachers, including their role in the work of managing multiple constraints while maintaining productive inclusivity. We then describe our attempts to discern the impact of these talk tools on student achievement in multiple classrooms, using both post-hoc controls and in vivo studies. We move on to the challenges present in disseminating this work in professional development settings; our approach includes framing talk tools as rational responses to actual classroom challenges. Finally we describe current efforts to disseminate cyber-enabled PD in science education K-12, including a central focus on academically productive talk.

We explore vocal vs. silent student participation in whole-class mathematics discussion in relation to learning outcomes, relying on additional data analysis from a previously published in vivo controlled comparison in two sixth grades (n = 44) which contrasted an “academically productive talk” (APT) condition (emphasizing frequent discussion) with a “direct instruction” condition (without discussion), where content was tightly controlled across conditions. In the current study, controlling for a variety of factors, we find no relationship between the degree to which students contributed vocally during the lessons, and those students' scores on the outcome measure, in either condition. This finding adds to a growing literature on participation in classroom discussion, and may inform thinking about the multiple constraints faced by teachers as they attempt to orchestrate whole-class discussions. However, we suggest that this result can most confidently be applied to classrooms in which a culture of active participation has already been established.

The vision for science teaching in the Framework for K-12 Science Education and the Next Generation Science Standards requires a radical departure from traditional science teaching. Science literacy is defined as three-dimensional (3D), in which students engage in science and engineering practices to develop and apply science disciplinary ideas and crosscutting concepts. This knowledge building presents many challenges for teachers. We describe a two-pronged program for scaling 3D science professional development (PD) across a state: (a) 24 teachers developed expertise in 3D learning and facilitating teacher study groups; (b) these peer facilitators led 22 study groups of teachers in 3D science activities, analyzing student learning, and investigating classroom interactions. We describe design approaches for supporting teacher and facilitator learning. We present analyses of teacher learning, including shifts in 3D science, beliefs, and pedagogical content knowledge that supports 3D science teaching, and ...

We examine the discursive influence of competing interest groups and how and when U.S. federal legislators use empirical evidence to consider Missouri River diversion projects originating in the relief, recovery, and reform thinking behind President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. Twelve U.S. Congressional committee hearings that occurred between 1944 and 2006 are content analyzed to demonstrate the nature of instrumental arguments in legislative deliberations. Members of Congress in favor of diversion projects used more economic-based, instrumental arguments than interest group representatives sharing their views while members of Congress opposed to the diversion projects consistently used less science-based, instrumental arguments than did interest group representatives sharing their stance. As a percentage, more instrumental arguments were made in field hearings than in Washington, D.C. hearings. While more economic-based, instrumental arguments were made in Senate-related hearings than in House of Representatives related hearings, in the House more science-based, instrumental arguments were made than in the Senate.

Many research methods exist to elucidate the functions of BMPs during osteogenesis. This chapter briefly reviews common immortalized mesenchymal cell types used to measure the efficacy of osteogenic factors like BMP-2. Detailed information regarding media and culture conditions are provided. Parameters relevant to experimental reproducibility and cell line authentication are discussed.

Many research methods exist to elucidate the functions of BMPs during osteogenesis. This chapter briefly reviews common immortalized mesenchymal cell types used to measure the efficacy of osteogenic factors like BMP-2. Detailed information regarding media and culture conditions are provided. Parameters relevant to experimental reproducibility and cell line authentication are discussed.

Advances in probabilistic forecasting, notably based on ensemble prediction systems, are transforming flood risk management. Four trends shaping the assimilation of probabilistic flood forecasting into flood risk management are longer forecasting lead times, advances in decision-making aids, inclusion of probabilistic forecasting in hazard mitigation and collaboration between researchers and managers. Confronting how to use probabilistic flood forecasts to make binary management decisions for reducing flood losses requires developing institutional capacity while acknowledging flood risk estimation is one component of decision making under uncertainty in an evolving policy landscape.

This article focuses on both research and practice relating to academically productive classroom discourse. We seek to “expand the conversation” to include newcomers to the field of classroom talk, as well as practitioners and youth researchers who want to contribute to knowledge building in this area. We first explore a variety of traditions, questions, and methods that have been prominent in work on classroom talk. We also summarize some key findings that have emerged over the past several decades: • Finding 1: Certain kinds of talk promote robust learning for ALL students. • Finding 2: The field lacks shared conceptualizations of what productive talk is and how best to characterize it. • Finding 3: Dialogic discourse is exceedingly rare in classrooms, at all grade levels and across all domains. • Finding 4: A helpful way forward: conceptualizing talk moves as tools. Following the presentation of each research finding we provide a set of commentaries—explicating and in some cases problematizing the findings. Finally, we provide some promising approaches that presume cultural and linguistic assets among both students and teachers, including curricular programs, teacher education, professional development programs, teacher research, and intergenerational communities of inquiry. In all of this, we try to make our own assumptions, traditions, and governing gazes explicit, as a multi-generational and multi-role group of authors, to encourage greater transparency among all who work in this important and potentially transformative field of study.

The consistent sporadic transmission of West Nile Virus (WNV) in the city of New Orleans justifies the need for distribution risk maps highlighting human risk of mosquito bites. We modeled the influence of biophysical and socioeconomic metrics on the spatio-temporal distributions of presence/vector-host contact (VHC) ratios of WNV vector, Culex quinquefasciatus, within their flight range. Biophysical and socioeconomic data were extracted within 5-km buffer radii around sampling localities of gravid female Culex quinquefasciatus. The spatio-temporal correlations between VHC data and 33 variables, including climate, land use-land cover (LULC), socioeconomic, and land surface terrain were analyzed using stepwise linear regression models (RM). Using MaxEnt, we developed a distribution model using the correlated predicting variables. Only 12 factors showed significant correlations with spatial distribution of VHC ratios (R2 = 81.62, p < 0.01). Non-forested wetland (NFWL), tree density (TD) and residential-urban (RU) settings demonstrated the strongest relationship. The VHC ratios showed monthly environmental resilience in terms of number and type of influential factors. The highest prediction power of RU and other urban and built up land (OUBL), was demonstrated during May–August. This association was positively correlated with the onset of the mosquito WNV infection rate during June. These findings were confirmed by the Jackknife analysis in MaxEnt and independently collected field validation points. The spatial and temporal correlations of VHC ratios and their response to the predicting variables are discussed.

This article describes the MODEL2TALK intervention, which aims to promote young children's oral communicative competence through productive classroom talk. Productive classroom talk provides children in early childhood education with many opportunities to talk and think together. Results from a large-scale study show that productive classroom talk has a positive effect on young children's oral language abilities. This is of great importance as good oral communicative competence is related to later reading comprehension skills and social acceptance and mediates learning, thinking, and self-regulation. Teachers can promote productive talk in their classrooms by giving children more space to share their ideas, listen to one another, reason, think together, and reflect on their communicative performance. The examples in this article support teachers to adopt productive talk and move toward a classroom culture in which children think and communicate together.

A federal government system creates opportunities for proponents and opponents of environmental policy change to shift the institutional home where a policy decision is made and then invoke reasoning tailored for the new venue and to retry or reframe arguments. Content analysis of North Dakota state legislative and US Congressional committee hearings preceding authorization of an outlet connecting Devils Lake, North Dakota to the binational Hudson Bay drainage basin revealed: (1) State and federal legislators were equally likely to invoke constituents' localized concerns in framing arguments, and (2) Scientific evidence did not hold sway in either state or federal hearings.

With the adoption of Common Core State Standards (CCSS) in English Language Arts (ELA) and math and the release and beginning adoptions of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), teachers, schools, and districts are clamoring for professional learning opportunities to refine and re-tool teaching to bring it in line with the reform visions in these documents. This increased need for professional development (PD) raises the question of the capacity of current systems of PD as well as the effectiveness of the most commonly used approaches. The nature of the new demands of these reforms and the scale of the need means that PD will have to use innovative approaches to handle the type of complex learning called for in these reforms, and will have to do so at scale (Wilson, 2013). Many may see online learning environments as part of a solution to address the scale issues, because of the ability to use this technology to reach broad audiences across a wide range of timeframes. There is interest in online or technology-mediated environments that promise certain kinds of functionality to support teachers in the complex work they are being asked to do (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Wilson (2013) identifies the need to "harness new technologies and social media to make high-quality science PD available to all teachers" as one of the grand challenges in science education. We argue as part of our response to Fishman et al. that a corollary to the challenge of access is the challenge of developing research-based design principles to guide the ongoing development, implementation, and evaluation efforts in online PD to meet these new, complex demands in teacher learning. Others share this concern. Dede, Ketelhut, Whitehouse, Breit, and McCloskey (2009) lay out the case for the growing importance of online delivery of PD. At the same time, they convey unease about the scarcity of nuanced empirical work to guide the design and implementation of online PD models. Dede et al. make a twofold clarion call to funders and the field to (a) conduct empirical research to tease apart not only what works" but why and (b) focus on theory building that articulates design principles that can guide effective PD, disseminated in ways helpful to practitioners and researchers alike. In their recent Journal of Teacher Education (JTE) article, "Comparing the Impact of Online and Face-to-Face Professional Development in the Context of Curriculum Implementation," Fishman et al. (2013) contribute important findings to this empirical work by comparing different modalities of PD. The Fishman et al. randomized study of secondary teacher learning to support adoption of a new science curriculum makes a welcome contribution to a high need area of research. Their comparison of three critical measures of change across two different PD modalities--face-to-face and online--affirm the growing importance of studies, as Fishman et al. state, measuring "the impact of PD on teacher beliefs and practice and student learning as opposed to teacher self-report of change" (p. 2) in two different learning contexts. The finding that online PD could produce the same impact on measures of teacher beliefs, practice, and student learning as face-to-face PD is an important step forward. For the community designing, implementing, and researching PD environments, this finding encourages design and study of online PD and provides a solid foundation on which to build. Yet, important research questions remain unanswered. While the focus of the study was a comparison of two formats for delivery of PD, the design of the PD itself was somewhat underspecified. For example, there is not enough information in their article about specific design assumptions guiding PD learning goals, nor is there much detail about the specific nature of their evaluation measures. This is not intended to be critical, but to suggest that to take their findings as applicable to all online PD would be an overreach. …

The study of policy framing enables the investigation of how elites conceptualize policy issues. While the dominant investigative work on elite framing has been within the mass media, we demonstrate the utility of an elite framing approach in a political institution, the U.S. Congress. We argue for moving to a “life-cycle” approach to policy framing that recognizes the evolution of elite framing attempts as implementation of a law deviates from its legislative intent, basing our approach out of the issue-attention cycle theory put forth by Downs (Public Interest 28:38–50, 1972). Framing efforts by policy advocates do not end after legislation has been enacted or policy changed. Elites who have been unsuccessful in achieving their policy aims continue to advocate for their preferred outcomes by altering their framing strategies. We demonstrate this by applying evolutionary factor analysis to investigate 10 Congressional committee hearings held between 1957 and 2006 pertaining to federal funding for the Garrison Diversion Unit in North Dakota. From the perspective of proponents of diverting water from the Missouri River, how the Congressional debate over the Unit progressed constituted policy regression. This is reflected in the evolution of elite framing over the period studied. Our analysis uncovers the emergence of four evolutionary frames. Initial frames emphasized the benefits to be derived from water diversion, while subsequent frames reflected a more defensive posture emphasizing the limited harm that water diversion would cause. This research demonstrates the consequences of legislative implementation delay for elite framing attempts.

To make a difference in policy making about socio-ecological systems, ecologists must grasp when decision makers are amenable to acting on ecological expertise and when they are not. To enable them to do so we present a matrix for classifying a socio-ecological system by the extent of what we don’t know about its natural components and the sodal interactions that affects them. We use four examples, Midcontinent Mallards, Laysan Ducks, Pallid Sturgeon, and Rocky Mountain Grey Wolves to illustrate how the combination of natural and social source of indeterminism matters. Where social indeterminism is high, ecologists can expand the range of possible science-based options decision makers might consider even while recognizing societal-based concerns rather than science will dominate decision making. In contrast, where natural indeterminism is low, ecologists can offer reasonably accurate predictions that may well serve as inputs into decision making. Depending on the combination of natural and social indeterminism characterizing a particular circumstance, ecologists have different roles to play in informing socio-ecological system management.

As stress on water resources increases from growing human demands and a changing climate, recognition of the need to develop effective strategies for water governance is expanding. Consequently, it is timely to consider the legacy of effective instances of water policy innovation that have been highly influential in water resource management in Canada. We present two historical examples of policy transfer – that is, when policy employed in one jurisdiction is adapted for use in another. The first is the late nineteenth-century adoption of water allocation law in the North-West Territories that was a noteworthy departure from how water had been allocated in eastern Canada. The second is the twentieth-century introduction of conservation authorities in Ontario as regional watershed-based management entities. These examples illustrate how, in an era of expert-driven natural resources management, notions of governance were adapted from Australia and the United States. They also reveal how the biophysically-ba...

The benefits of utilizing intermediaries to broker understanding between environmental scientists and policy makers have become widely touted. Yet little is known about the tasks boundary spanners undertake to develop environmental policy solutions and how these tasks fit into frameworks intended to advance public policy decision making. Such frameworks may be constructed to aid decision makers in differentiating between the types of environmental policy issues that confront them or the policy settings in which they are operating. Consequently, this paper examines how six different knowledge brokering strategies; informing, consulting, matchmaking, engaging, collaborating and building capacity might be employed in responding to different types of environmental policy problems or policy settings identified in decision aiding frameworks. Using real world examples, four frameworks are reviewed. They are; Lindquist's [Lindquist, E.A., 1988. What do decision models tell us about information use? Knowledge in Society 1 (2), 86–111; Lindquist, E.A., 1990. The third community, policy inquiry, and social scientists. In: Stephen Brooks, S., Gagnon, A. (Eds.), Social Scientists, Policy and the State. Praeger, New York; Lindquist, E.A., 2001. Discerning policy influence: framework for a strategic evaluation of IDRC-Supported research] decision regimes, Turnhout et al.’s [Turnhout, E., Hisschemoller, M., Eijsackers, H., 2007. Ecological indicators: between the two fires of science and policy. Ecological Indicators 7 (2), 215–228] science policy typology, Holling's [Holling, C.S., 1995. What barriers? What bridges? In: Gunderson, L.H., Holling, C.S. (Eds.), Barriers and Bridges to the Renewal of Ecosystems and Institutions. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 3–34] adaptive cycle and Kurtz and Snowden's [Kurtz, C.F., Snowden, D.J., 2003. The new dynamics of strategy: sense-making in a complex and complicated world. IBM Systems Journal 42 (3), 462–483] Cynefin domains. For the different problem types or policy settings described in the decision aiding frameworks primary knowledge brokering strategies are identified. While the frameworks differ in their conceptual constructions, the applicability of specific knowledge brokering strategies serve as a commonality across particular problem types and policy settings.

Abstract Many protocols have been used in clinical and research settings for collecting systolic blood pressure (SBP) measurements to calculate the ankle–brachial index (ABI); however, it is not known how useful it is to replicate measurements and which measures best reflect cardiovascular risk. Standardized measurements of ankle and arm SBP from 5140 overweight or obese individuals with type 2 diabetes were used to estimate sources of variation. Measurement characteristics of leg-specific ABI, as calculated using a standard algorithm based on the highest SBP of the dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial arteries, were projected using simulations. Coefficients of variability ranged from 2% to 3% when single SBP measurements were used and ABI was overestimated by 2–3%. Taking two SBP measurements at each site reduced standard errors and bias each by 30–40%. The sensitivity of detecting low ABI ranges exceeded 90% for ABI within 0.05 of the 0.90 clinical cut-point. The average and the minimum of the two (i.e. right and left) leg-specific ABI values had similar U-shaped relationships with Framingham risk scores; however, the average leg ABI had slightly greater precision. Replicating SBP measurements reduces the error and bias of ABI. Averaging leg-specific values may increase power for characterizing cardiovascular disease risk.

Classroom discussion practices that can lead to reasoned participation by all students are presented and described by the authors. Their research emphasizes the careful orchestration of talk and tasks in academic learning. Parallels are drawn to the philosophical work on deliberative discourse and the fundamental goal of equipping all students to participate in academically productive talk. These practices, termed Accountable TalkSM, emphasize the forms and norms of discourse that support and promote equity and access to rigorous academic learning. They have been shown to result in academic achievement for diverse populations of students. The authors outline Accountable Talk as encompassing three broad dimensions: one, accountability to the learning community, in which participants listen to and build their contributions in response to those of others; two, accountability to accepted standards of reasoning, talk that emphasizes logical connections and the drawing of reasonable conclusions; and, three, accountability to knowledge, talk that is based explicitly on facts, written texts, or other public information. With more than fifteen years research into Accountable Talk applications across a wide range of classrooms and grade levels, the authors detail the challenges and limitations of contexts in which discourse norms are not shared by all members of the classroom community.

This study examined the effects of a motivationally facilitative after-school program on 7th grade students' autonomous motivation, learning goals, school engagement, and performance in science class. Pairs of students were individually matched on sex, race/ethnicity, free lunch status, and science grades and each member was randomly assigned to either a 15 week, after-school program or a control group. Students (N = 90) completed questionnaires regarding their motivation, and engagement before and after the program. Science, math, social studies, and English teachers rated students' levels of classroom engagement. Students participating in the Investigators' Club increased in learning goals, engagement in school and in science class, and science grades, and decreased in performance goals relative to the controls. Effects of the program as well as drop-out and completer information, are discussed in terms of the goal of facilitating motivation in disadvantaged middle school students.

Organizations at the local and regional scales often face the challenge of developing policy mechanisms rapidly and concurrently, whether in response to expanding mandates, newly identified threats, or changes in the political environment. In the Canadian Province of Ontario, rapid, concurrent policy development was considered desirable by 19 regional organizations tasked with developing policies for protection of drinking water sources under very tight and highly prescribed mandates. An explicit policy transfer approach was used by these organizations. Policy transfer refers to using knowledge of policies, programs, and institutions in one context in the development of policies, programs, and institutions in another. This paper assesses three online mechanisms developed to facilitate policy transfer for source water protection in Ontario. Insights are based on a survey of policy planners from the 19 regional organizations who used the three policy transfer tools, supplemented by an analysis of three policies created and transferred among the 19 regional source water protection organizations. Policy planners in the study indicated they had used policy transfer to develop source protection policies for their regions-a finding confirmed by analysis of the text of policies. While the online policy transfer tools clearly facilitated systematic policy transfer, participants still preferred informal, direct exchanges with their peers in other regions over the use of the internet-based policy transfer mechanisms created on their behalf.

Knowledge uptake, having decision makers assimilate the ideas of experts, is recognized as an important stimulus to bringing about policy change. This is particularly true in the realm of environmental policymaking, which is characterized by knowledge intensity, complexity, and multifaceted concerns. Using examples from an innovative watershed management organization, this article presents a heuristic for understanding how knowledge uptake occurs within a cycle of organizational reasoning. This cycle is driven by activities that transform data, information, and knowledge and that link specialists with decision makers. The heuristic can be used as a diagnostic tool to identify breaks in the transformation process that impede mandate fulfillment and impair capacity building. Lack of appreciation of the dynamic relationship between data, information and knowledge leads to mistimed and ineffective policy interventions that do not result in the hoped for progress in science intended to underpin policy advances.

Much of the hazards literature on information transfer focuses on how individuals passively acquire hazards information by monitoring what comes across their desks and computer screens. This paper highlights a complementary information search strategy in which individuals pull or actively seek out the information they need. This research examines the affiliations of those who have been proactive in contacting the Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center over a 20-year span. Until 2000/2001 requests from university-affiliated individuals exceeded those from people with other affiliations. There has been an increase in the number of information requests from unaffiliated individuals and from people outside the United States. A survey of a subset of those who have requested information from the Hazards Center highlights the importance of knowledgeable personal contacts and the World Wide Web for identifying the center as a source for information. It is vital for organizations committed to the distribution of timely, appropriate hazards-related information to effectively service the needs of a proactive, amorphous assemblage of hazards information seekers.

Little is known about environmental exposure to pesticides and the extent to which exposure is affected by drift from agricultural applications and take home exposure from agricultural workers. The study focused on 24 agricultural families in the northwestern United States and measured levels of organophosphate pesticides (OP) in house dust. Pesticide residues were significantly associated with the number of individuals in the home whose work included high exposure pesticide activities. Mean levels of pesticides were higher in the homes of workers who reported waiting more than 2 hours before changing out of their work clothes compared with homes where workers change within 2 hours after returning from work (p < .01). The results of this study provide evidence that workers can inadvertently carry agricultural chemicals from their work into their homes, thereby increasing the risk of pesticide exposure to other family members inside the home.

In Eva Marsal’s article, a model is presented that teaches children to philosophize by acquiring a set of skills in step-by-step exercises. In the classroom examples that Marsal provides, however, it remains unclear how teachers support the kinds of thinking and philosophizing that her Five Finger Model aims to promote. This is why, in response to Eva Marsal’s article, we argue that productive classroom dialogue can be seen as a complementary approach that supports teachers in bringing dialogue into their classrooms. As its aim is to promote children’s “meaningful learning and cultural development in an emancipatory way” (van Oers, 2012a, p. 59), it enables them to do more than appropriate or reconstruct conventional cultural meanings. Through productiveclassroom dialogue, children learn how to collaboratively progress in communicating, thinking, and understanding. As such, we believe it to be a suitable context for philosophizing with children that goes beyond step-by-step exercises. In this commentary, we subsequently elaborate the notion of productive classroom dialogue and discuss how it interanimates with Marsal’s Five Finger Model.

Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease where the body perceives joint tissue as a foreign object and attacks it through the immune response. During this process the immune response destroys the native joint tissue and later replaces it with nonfunctional scar tissue. The joints and surrounding tissues continue to have uncontrolled chronic inflammation which produces perpetual pain, swelling, and tissue destruction. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) metabolizes arachidonic acid into eicosanoids which can regulate the inflammatory response and affect bone metabolism. When articular cartilage is damaged, bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) is released from cells and can upregulate COX-2 expression. It is hypothesized that this BMP-2 induced COX-2 expression results in cartilage producing cells known as chondrocytes to advance to hypertrophy. In this study, articular chondrocytes harvested from wild type mice were treated with BMP-2 to determine if COX-2 expression could increase chondrocyte maturation and hypertrophy. Samples were collected at 0, 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 days after treatment to analyze protein and gene expression. BMP-2 treated cells had statistically higher COX-2 mRNA and protein levels when compared to control cells. The expression of COX-2 on days 1 and 3 was followed by the expression of collagen 10a1 (a marker of chondrocyte hypertrophy) on days 7 and 10. These data suggest that BMP-2 directed COX-2 expression can affect chondrocyte maturation. In conclusion, this mechanism may contribute to the bone loss associated with chronic inflammation in diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.

Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1980), pp. 142-156

Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1981), pp. 178-191

In seeking to trace linkages among groups involved with environmental management in New York State's Adirondack Park, we developed a participatory exercise and employed it at a recent Adirondack research conference. Fourteen organizations took part, collectively representing 72 linkages associated with policies and programs, expertise, information dissemination, and physical facilities. The exercise revealed a dense "hub-and-spoke" pattern of interactions, with state agencies acting as the hubs. The exercise is easy to administer and can be used to provide a one-time snapshot of organizational interactions as well as serving as a basis for longitudinal research.

Initiatives in the Neponset, Ipswich, and Sudbury-Assabet-Concord watersheds highlight how watershed-scale innovation in engaging nongovernment participants is influenced, but not dominated, by the statewide program, the Massachusetts Watershed Initiative. The presence or absence of three elements--external support, process, and issue--and the order in which they occur, shape the viability of collaborative watershed-scale management initiatives. External support includes providing personnel or funding from outside an initiative. Process is the interaction among individuals undertaking watershed-wide policy development and/or implementation. An issue is an attention-requiring concern, vital to a watershed, that can most effectively be addressed by a coordinated strategy among different parties. A process generated by an issue is sustainable and amenable to enhancement through external support. The contribution of external support is most apparent when outside assistance is provided after an issue has crystallized into clear problem needs that can be addressed through specific research projects or implementation activities. Process is central in shaping issues, utilizing external support, and generating management results. The outcomes of voluntary processes in the three watershed initiatives highlight how the evolution of the Massachusetts Watershed Initiative leads to, and depends upon, the development of watershed-scale initiatives.

During the past decade, 'partnership' has become a watchword for regional environmental management (Bronars & Michaels 1997). Partnerships, in the context of environmental conservation, can be defined as collaborative efforts to achieve shared management objectives which engage, but are not limited to, non-profit groups, for-profit companies, government agencies, and landowners.

The goal of the Massachusetts Watershed Initiative (MWI) is to use a watershed approach to restore and maintain the integrity of state waters. The MWI is presented as an effort to bring about the convergence of the agendas of government, the informed public, and the general public. In the planning phase of the MWI's pilot project in the Neponset River Watershed, government and the informed public successfully struggled to create a joint basin-wide action plan. Stronger outreach is needed to involve the broader public and to engage local municipalities and businesses more fully.

The Resource Management Act, the cornerstone of New Zealand's legislated environmental policy, reflects the mediation of internationally debated constructs of sustainable development and profoundly local meanings of living within nature. The outcome is a made-in-New Zealand approach to conceptualizing sustainable management in national environmental policy. This paper demonstrates how and why the contribution of non-New Zealanders and the first peoples of New Zealand, the Maori, to this conceptualization differ so profoundly from each other. External influences, such as the thinking of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) on defining sustainable development, have the greatest impact in the initial conceptualization of policy formulation. It is through Kingdon's (1984) policy stream, rather than through his other two streams of politics and problems, that outside views weigh in most convincingly. First peoples are positioned to be influential in policy formulation through all three of Kingdon's streams because of their appreciation of locality and long-term commitment to place. These factors are reflective of a philosophy and ideology which is not the bedrock of state legislation about sustainable management. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.