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Resumen: Introducción y objetivo: El objetivo del presente estudio es describir los errores de medicación (EM) notificados en atención primaria analizando el ámbito, el daño y las causas, y orientando el análisis a las medidas para prevenir estos errores. Material y métodos: Ámbito: Atención primaria. Servicio Madrileño de Salud. 2016. Diseño: Estudio descriptivo transversal. Participantes: Todas las notificaciones de EM realizadas desde los centros de salud en el sistema de notificación de incidentes de seguridad entre el 1 de enero y el 17 de noviembre de 2016 (n = 1.839). Mediciones principales: Ámbito donde ocurrió el error, daño real, daño potencial y causa del error. Fueron clasificadas por un investigador. Se comprobó la concordancia con otro investigador. Resultados: En el ámbito del centro de salud ocurrieron el 47% (IC95%: 44,8-49,3%) de los EM y en el entorno del paciente el 26,5% (IC95%: 24,5-28,6%). El 27,5% (IC95%: 24,1-30,8%) de los EM tenían potencialidad de daño grave. En el ámbito del centro de salud, la causa más frecuente fue la prescripción inadecuada: 27,4% (IC95%: 24,4-30,4%). En el entorno del paciente, la causa más frecuente fue el fallo en la comunicación profesional-paciente: 66% (IC95%: 61,8-70,2%), seguida por equivocaciones y despistes del paciente. Conclusiones: La mitad de los errores de medicación notificados desde atención primaria tiene lugar en el centro de salud mientras que los EM del paciente son la cuarta parte. Uno de cada 4 es un error potencialmente grave. Las causas más importantes son la prescripción inadecuada (incluyendo indicación o dosis incorrecta, interacciones, contraindicaciones y alergias), los fallos en la comunicación profesional-paciente y los despistes en la autoadministración del paciente. Parece prioritario implantar sistemas de ayuda a la prescripción, prácticas seguras efectivas en comunicación profesional-paciente y ayudas que eviten los despistes en la autoadministración del paciente. Abstract: Introduction and objectives: Aim of this study is to determine the setting, causes, and the harm of medication errors (ME) which are notified by Primary Health Care. Material and methods: Setting: Primary Care Regional Health Service of Madrid. 2016. Design: Descriptive and cross-sectional study. Participants: All ME (1,839) which were notified by Primary Care Centres by notification system of safety incidents between January 1 st 2016 and November 17th 2016. Main measurements: Setting, real harm, potential harm, and cause of error. These items were classified by one researcher. Concordance was checked with another researcher. Results: Just under half (47%) (95% CI: 44.8%-49.3%) of ME occurred in Primary Care Centre, 26.5% (95% CI: 24.5%-28.6%) of ME were patient medication errors, and 27.5% (95% CI: 24.1%-30.8%) of ME were potential severe harm errors. Prescribing errors were the cause of most ME in Primary Care Centre [27.4% (95% CI: 24.4%-30.4%)]. Communication between patients and doctors were the cause of most patient medication errors [66% (95% CI: 61.8%-70.2%)]. Patient mistakes and forgetfulness were also causes of patient medication errors. Conclusions: Half of all mediation errors hppened at Primary Care Center while one quarter of them were patient medication errors.One quarter of all ME were potential severe harm errors. The main causes were prescribing errors, failure of communication between patients and doctors, and patient mistakes and forgetfulness. Prescribing aid systems, communication improvements and patients aids should be implemented. Palabras clave: Seguridad del paciente, Errores de medicación, Atención primaria, Keywords: Patient safety, Medication errors, Primary care

This article presents a novel mathematical model to describe the spread of an infectious disease in the presence of social and health events: it uses 15 compartments, 7 convolution integrals and 4 types of infected individuals, asymptomatic, mild, moderate and severe. A unique feature of this work is that the convolutions and the compartments have been selected to maximize the number of independent input parameters, leading to a 56-parameter model where only one had to evolve over time. The results show that 1) the proposed mathematical model is flexible and robust enough to describe the complex dynamic of the pandemic during the first three waves of the COVID-19 spread in the region of Madrid (Spain) and 2) the proposed model allows us to calculate the number of asymptomatic individuals and the number of persons who presented antibodies during the first waves. The study shows that the following results are compatible with the reported data: close to 28% of the infected individuals were asymptomatic during the three waves, close to 29% of asymptomatic individuals were detected during the subsequent waves and close to 26% of the Madrid population had antibodies at the end of the third wave. This calculated number of persons with antibodies is in great agreement with four direct measurements obtained from an independent sero-epidemiological research. In addition, six calculated curves (total number of confirmed cases, asymptomatic who are confirmed as positive, hospital admissions and discharges and intensive care units admissions) show good agreement with data from an epidemiological surveillance database.

The use of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines has affected the epidemiology and distribution of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes causing Invasive Pneumococcal Disease (IPD). The aim of this study was to analyze the evolution of the phenotypical profiles of antimicrobial susceptibility to penicillin (PEN) in all IPD strains isolated in Madrid, Spain, during 2007–2021. In total, 7133 invasive clinical isolates were characterized between 2007 and 2021. Levels of PENR and PNSSDR were 2.0% and 24.2%, respectively. In addition, 94.4% of all the PENR belonged to four serotypes, including 11A (33.6%), 19A (30.8%), 14 (20.3%) and 9V (9.8%). All the strains of serotype 11A, which is a non-PCV13 serotype, were detected after the year 2011. Serotypes 6C, 15A, 23B, 24F, 35B, 19F, 16F, 6B, 23F, 24B, 24A, 15F and a limited number of strains of serogroups 16 and 24 (non-typed at serotype level) were associated with PNSSDR (p < 0.05). PNSSDR strains of non-PCV13 serotypes 11A, 24F, 23B, 24B, 23A and 16F were more frequent from 2014 to 2021. The changes in S. pneumoniae serotype distribution associated with the use of conjugate vaccines had caused in our region the emergence of non-PCV13 pneumococcal strains with different PENR or PNSSDR patterns. The emergence of serotype 11A resistant to penicillin as the most important non-PCV13 serotype is a worrisome event with marked relevance from the clinical and epidemiological perspective.

After the systematic use of conjugate vaccines, the invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) was included into the Madrid Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System through an Epidemiological Surveillance Network. Furthermore, Streptococcus pneumoniae was included in the Spanish Plan of Antibiotic Resistance. The aim of this study was to analyse the multidrug-resistant (MDR) phenotype distribution among invasive strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated during 2007–2021 from usually sterile clinical samples in Madrid, Spain. A total number of 7133 invasive pneumococcal isolates were studied during the period from February 2007 to December 2021. Serotyping was characterised using the Pneumotest-Latex and by the Quellung reaction. Antibiotic susceptibility testing to penicillin (PEN), erythromycin (ERY), and levofloxacin (LVX) was performed using the E-test according to the EUCAST guidelines and breakpoints. Combination of non-susceptibility to PEN at standard dosing regimen (PNSSDR), resistance to ERY (ERYR) and to LVX (LVXR) was considered to be multidrug-resistant at standard dosing regimen of penicillin (MRPSDR), whereas the combination of resistance to PEN (PENR), ERYR, and LVXR was considered multidrug-resistant (MDR). The number of MDRPSDR and or MDR strains in the entire population (n = 7133) during the complete period (2007–2021) were 51 (0.7%) and 6 (0.1%), respectively. All MDRPSDR and/or MDR strains belonged to nine serotypes: 19A (n = 13), 15A (n = 12), 9V (n = 12), 14 (n = 7), 24F (n = 3), 15F (n = 1), 19F (n = 1), 6B (n = 1) and 6C (n = 1). Only two serotypes (9V and 19A) were found among MDR strains, and most of them (5/6) belonged to serotype 9V. Only 12.4% of the strains typified as serotype 9V were MDRPSDR and only 5.2% as MDR. The levels of pneumococcal MDRPSDR and/or MDR in this study were low and all six MDR strains were isolated between 2014 and 2018. These results reinforce the importance of monitoring the evolution of non-susceptible serotypes including those with MDR in the coming years, especially after the introduction of new conjugate vaccines of a broader spectrum.

We evaluated invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) during 8 years of infant pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) programs using 10-valent (PCV10) and 13-valent (PCV13) vaccines in 10 countries in Europe. IPD incidence declined during 2011–2014 but increased during 2015–2018 in all age groups. From the 7-valent PCV period to 2018, IPD incidence declined by 42% in children 65 years of age; non-PCV13 serotype incidence increased by 111%, 63%, and 84%, respectively, for these groups. Trends were similar in countries using PCV13 or PCV10, despite different serotype distribution. Serotypes included in the 15-valent PCV represented one third of cases and those in the 20-valent PCVs two thirds of cases in children 65 years of age in 2018. Non-PCV13 serotype increases reduced the overall effect of childhood PCV10/PCV13 programs on IPD. New vaccines providing broader serotype protection are needed.

The aim of this study was to investigate the serotype-associated fatality rate in cases of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in the Spanish region of Madrid between 2007 and 2020. Serotyping was performed by Pneumotest Latex and the Quellung reaction using commercial antisera. Case-fatality rate was estimated as the ratio between the number of deaths at hospital discharge and the number of cases attributable to each serotype. To evaluate the association measures, the odds ratios with a 95% confidence interval were calculated. Twenty five pneumococcal serotypes were associated to mortality and comprised 87.8% of the total number of isolates characterized. Serotypes 8, 3, 19A, 1, 7F, 22F, 12F, and 11A were the most prevalent (≥3% each). Serotypes 31, 11A, and 19F were significantly associated to high case-fatality rates (>20% each). The lower significantly associated case-fatality rate (

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the main bacterial cause of respiratory infections in children and the elderly worldwide. Serotype replacement is a frequent phenomenon after the introduction of conjugated vaccines, with emerging serotypes 22F and 33F as frequent non-PCV13 serotypes in children and adults in North America and other countries. Characterization of mechanisms involved in evasion of the host immune response by these serotypes is of great importance in public health because they are included in the future conjugated vaccines PCV15 and PCV20. One of the main strategies of S. pneumoniae to persistently colonize and causes infection is biofilm formation. In this study, we have evaluated the influence of capsule polysaccharide in biofilm formation and immune evasion by using clinical isolates from different sources and isogenic strains with capsules from prevalent serotypes. Since the introduction of PCV13 in Spain in the year 2010, isolates of serotypes 22F and 33F are rising among risk populations. The predominant circulating genotypes are ST43322F and ST71733F, being CC433 in 22F and CC717 in 33F the main clonal complexes in Spain. The use of clinical isolates of different origin, demonstrated that pediatric isolates of serotypes 22F and 33F formed better biofilms than adult isolates and this was statistically significant. This phenotype was greater in clinical isolates from blood origin compared to those from cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid and otitis. Opsonophagocytosis assays showed that serotype 22F and 33F were recognized by the PSGL-1 receptor on leukocytes, although serotype 22F, was more resistant than serotype 33F to phagocytosis killing and more lethal in a mouse sepsis model. Overall, the emergence of additional PCV15 serotypes, especially 22F, could be associated to an enhanced ability to divert the host immune response that markedly increased in a biofilm state. Our findings demonstrate that pediatric isolates of 22F and 33F, that form better biofilm than isolates from adults, could have an advantage to colonize the nasopharynx of children and therefore, be important in carriage and subsequent dissemination to the elderly. The increased ability of serotype 22F to avoid the host immune response, might explain the emergence of this serotype in the last years.

Serotype-specific surveillance for invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) is essential for assessing the impact of 10- and 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV10/13). The Pneumococcal Serotype Replacement and Distribution Estimation (PSERENADE) project aimed to evaluate the global evidence to estimate the impact of PCV10/13 by age, product, schedule, and syndrome. Here we systematically characterize and summarize the global landscape of routine serotype-specific IPD surveillance in PCV10/13-using countries and describe the subset that are included in PSERENADE. Of 138 countries using PCV10/13 as of 2018, we identified 109 with IPD surveillance systems, 76 of which met PSERENADE data collection eligibility criteria. PSERENADE received data from most (n = 63, 82.9%), yielding 240,639 post-PCV10/13 introduction IPD cases. Pediatric and adult surveillance was represented from all geographic regions but was limited from lower income and high-burden countries. In PSERENADE, 18 sites evaluated PCV10, 42 PCV13, and 17 both; 17 sites used a 3 + 0 schedule, 38 used 2 + 1, 13 used 3 + 1, and 9 used mixed schedules. With such a sizeable and generally representative dataset, PSERENADE will be able to conduct robust analyses to estimate PCV impact and inform policy at national and global levels regarding adult immunization, schedule, and product choice, including for higher valency PCVs on the horizon.

Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 1 (ST1) was an important cause of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) globally before the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) containing ST1 antigen. The Pneumococcal Serotype Replacement and Distribution Estimation (PSERENADE) project gathered ST1 IPD surveillance data from sites globally and aimed to estimate PCV10/13 impact on ST1 IPD incidence. We estimated ST1 IPD incidence rate ratios (IRRs) comparing the pre-PCV10/13 period to each post-PCV10/13 year by site using a Bayesian multi-level, mixed-effects Poisson regression and all-site IRRs using a linear mixed-effects regression (N = 45 sites). Following PCV10/13 introduction, the incidence rate (IR) of ST1 IPD declined among all ages. After six years of PCV10/13 use, the all-site IRR was 0.05 (95% credibility interval 0.04–0.06) for all ages, 0.05 (0.04–0.05) for

The emergence of clinical isolates associated to multidrug resistance is a serious threat worldwide in terms of public health since complicates the success of the antibiotic treatment and the resolution of the infectious process. This is of great concern in pathogens affecting the lower respiratory tract as these infections are one of the major causes of mortality in children and adults. In most cases where the respiratory pathogen is associated to multidrug-resistance, antimicrobial concentrations both in serum and at the site of infection may be insufficient and the resolution of the infection depends on the interaction of the invading pathogen with the host immune response. The outcome of these infections largely depends on the susceptibility of the pathogen to the antibiotic treatment, although the humoral and cellular immune responses also play an important role in this process. Hence, prophylactic measures or even immunotherapy are alternatives against these multi-resistant pathogens. In this sense, specific antibodies and antibiotics may act concomitantly against the respiratory pathogen. Alteration of cell surface structures by antimicrobial drugs even at sub-inhibitory concentrations might result in greater exposure of microbial ligands that are normally hidden or hardly exposed. This alteration of the bacterial envelope may stimulate opsonization by natural and/or specific antibodies or even by host defense components, increasing the recognition of the microbial pathogen by circulating phagocytes. In this review we will explain the most relevant studies, where vaccination or the use of monoclonal antibodies in combination with antimicrobial treatment has demonstrated to be an alternative strategy to overcome the impact of multidrug resistance in respiratory pathogens.

This work consists of an analysis of the importance of creativity in education, its relationship with values and attitudes and their interaction in teacher training programs. Creativity is a movement that has had a huge expansion in the second half of the twentieth century. It is found in all fields as an element connatural to a world of change. We are circumscribed to the educational field. From the field of learners interested in diagnosis, as well as the stimulation of creativity. If we consider the Educational System, the structural conditions matter so that creativity can occur. It is found as an activity parallel to the rest of the curricular activities, or, incardinated in all areas or disciplines. Later we will be able to verify the relation of the creativity with the matters of the curriculum for the formation of teachers.

The purpose of this paper is to offer sorne reflections and purposes on the evolution and present situation of the attention to the diversity and motivate education profesionals to contrast the following aspects: - Importance of the evolution of Special Education and the changes produced in this field. - Need of development and practice of the integration movement to better attend the diversity of the students.Emerging problems concerning integration of ethnic minorities due to the incresing importance of this students in the class. Need of formation, preparation and sensibilization of teachers to attend the diversity of students.

El presente artículo pretende destacar, en primer lugar, la importancia que los Organismos Internacionales conceden a la educación como promotora de valores que contribuyen a fomentar el entendimiento, solidaridad y tolerancia a nivel mundial. La tolerancia, consideramos es el camino para unificar teoría y práctica, cerrar el abismo entre palabras y realidad y crear una sociedad inter-multicultural en la que el respeto a los valores del otro sea el valor más absoluto. La educación puede hacer realidad esta idea. Es en la escuela y con la intervención del educador donde se pueden sentar las bases de una pedagogía inter-multicultural. Por ello destacamos los aspectos que pueden contribuir al desarrollo de la tolerancia. Resaltamos la importancia que tiene la formación del educador tanto a nivel teórico como práctico, y el papel que ha de desempeñar de cara al siglo XXI.

Resumen La intervención educativa en contextos formales y sociales obedece a un proceso histórico de evolución y cambio. Los cambios en estrategias, técnicas e instrumentos de evaluación, además de nuevas alternativas y propuestas metodológicas basadas en los planteamientos europeos, pueden aplicarse, desde los procesos de investigación hasta la intervención educativa en diferentes ámbitos. El Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior (EEES) supone un nuevo modo de plantear las metodologías de intervención educativa, basadas en la cooperación y el compromiso. En este nuevo modelo, el receptor ocupa el centro del proceso, y el crédito europeo se convierte así en una unidad de valoración del volumen total de trabajo. Por este motivo, la piedra angular del sistema recae sobre la evaluación en todos los ámbitos y niveles educativos. Las innovaciones en el proceso de intervención en ámbitos educativos no pueden darse por consolidadas si no se producen transformaciones similares en la evaluación. Los instrumentos, técnicas, estrategias de evaluación constituyen procedimientos básicos para evaluar el logro de los resultados esperados. Palabras clave Evaluación, evaluación alternativa, innovación, competencia, evaluación de competencias, aprendizaje cooperativo, investigación evaluativa, aprender haciendo

En las páginas siguientes se presenta una experiencia desarrollada en el marco de un proyecto de innovación docente en la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid titulado Aprendizaje basado en problemas (ABP). Estrategia metodológica y organizativa del currículum para la calidad de la enseñanza en los estudios de Magisterio. En ella un grupo de profesores del Departamento de Didáctica y Teoría de la Educación de la UAM ha ensayado la aplicación de la metodología ABP en la formación de los estudiantes de Magisterio de Educación Infantil y ha tenido la oportunidad de reflexionar sobre los puntos fuertes y las debilidades de la misma.

Palabras de homenaje a la profesora Asunción Camina