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Automation has infiltrated nearly all areas of our lives. Many technologies have not been designed considering older adult populations. Smartphone usage is pervasive among older individuals, but whether age-related differences exist in the use of automated features of mobile devices continues to be researched. This study examined how younger, middle-aged, and older adults use AutoCorrect (AC) to send mobile messages. A total of 138 participants were asked about their perceptions of AC and to write messages in response to four scenarios that varied in complexity. Overall, younger adults had a more favorable perception of AC compared to middle-aged and older adults. Also, when complexity was both high and low, older adults were more likely to proofread their messages, manually correct AC, find AC distracting, and perceive AC to be helpful. Our findings suggest that older adults do engage with automation differently than their younger counterparts, which should be considered by automation designers.

Military spouses experience unique stressors due to service member deployments and frequent relocations. Our purpose is to examine how military spouses use social networking groups, such as Facebook, and determine how this use was related to perceived social support and well-being. We found more frequent Facebook use was associated with decreased well-being compared with those who reported using Facebook less frequently. Practitioners may enhance the care provided to military spouses by inquiring about their circumstances, social media use, and helping them to identify social support services that may mitigate stress and improve well-being.

This paper presents a predictive data analytics process for examining the relationship between team communication and performance in planning tasks. Team performance is measured in terms of the time each team spends in completing the planning task and the cost of the concomitant work schedule. The predictive data analytics process encompasses three data abstraction techniques for data preparation, three probabilistic models that represent the temporal features of data abstracted from team communication interactions, and a validation process that selects the best pair of data abstraction and model for subsequent insight analysis. Experimental data obtained from 32 teams of three members each, tasked to solve a personnel scheduling problem, is used for validating the proposed methodology.

This research examined medical-surgical nurse shift-to-shift handoffs to identify the generic handoff process steps, as well as failure modes and effects, to develop causal explanations lin...

Whether a team is tasked with a developing a new product, incrementally improving an existing situation, or reacting to an emergency, all members of the project team must collectively discuss what they need to be doing, how they will do it, and when it will happen. To understand how these conversations may transpire, we use network pictographs and basic statistics to examine communication timing and pacing in this chapter. Timing identifies what topics a team may benefit from discussing early versus those that may be more appropriately considered later. Pacing will help team leaders consider when and how frequently teams may need to iterate among topics at various times over their lifecycles. The specific topics, timing, and pacing may differ depending upon the conditions under which the team is working. Planning the timing and pacing of conversations are rarely considered explicitly; yet, giving these communication aspects some consideration may facilitate more efficient interactions among team members.

Limited team research has focused on how communication evolves over time. To showcase what has been accomplished, a structured literature review was conducted and is described in this chapter. The purpose of the review is to (1) highlight the variety of approaches available for researchers to gather, code, analyze, and visualize longitudinal communication data and (2) demonstrate the breadth of knowledge about team interactions that can be obtained by implementing such approaches.

When teams are convened, they have many issues to discuss. Some of their conversations occur all at once; while, others require shifting among topics to make key decisions that reflect all the information available. Understanding how these conversations transpire, including when topics are discussed and in what order, may help teams perform effectively. In this chapter, we consider communication polyphony using event history analysis; specifically, we employ proportional hazard models and Andersen-Gill intensity models. This approach results in identifying the relationships among the points in time when teams complete conversations about specific topics. The findings from these analyses highlight the order in which topics are discussed, when action is initiated, how often teams cycle through various topics, and any relationships these points of interest have with team performance. Differences attributable to the conditions under which the teams collaborate are also examined.

Teams are ubiquitous in organizations. Yet, little is known about their dynamic team processes. One particular gap in our understanding is when and how often these types of processes are necessary. To address this gap, we examine longitudinal team communication exchanged among team members collaborating under different working conditions. In this chapter, we begin by summarizing what is known about longitudinal team communication. We then introduce the two theoretical frameworks used to guide our research, namely Marks et al. (2001) recurring phase model of team processes and Bartunek and Woodman’s (2015) temporal dimensions of organizational change. As well, we acknowledge that teams collaborate within a variety of contexts. Herein, we describe two aspects of context upon which we focus: communication media and time availability. The chapter concludes with an overview of the book and rationale for why researchers and practitioners may find value in reading it.

Team conversations ebb and flow as members collaborate to complete their tasks. This ebb and flow may be characterized as having varying degrees of stability, predictability, and complexity. In this chapter, we examine these characteristics to understand the rhythm of communication using recurrence quantification analysis, including constructing recurrence plots that facilitate visualizing the communication rhythm. Our results underscore when teams may benefit from focused versus cyclic conversations, whether those conversations should follow predictable patterns or be seemingly random, and if the time spent talking about specific topics should be consistent or vary over time. These insights may be dependent upon a variety of issues including where in the lifecycle the teams are, how much time they have to complete their task, and what media is available for communicating.

In this chapter, we examine communication sequences to identify different types of communication behaviors that may be most advantageous to teams. Specifically, we investigate how teams converse about our topics of interest by classifying both the topic (e.g., tactical strategy, mission analysis) and purpose (e.g., clarify, suggest, inform) of each exchanged message. We examine the sequential order in which these messages are transmitted and determine if any differences in sequence are attributable to the conditions under which the team is working or their performance on the assigned task. This investigation is accomplished using hierarchical cluster analysis and dendrograms that facilitate visualizing the results. Capturing how team communication unfolds at this level of detail highlights the types of messages or ordering of messages that may facilitate or impede team progress, thereby offering guidance about why seemingly similar teams often have varying performance.

Throughout this book, we have examined longitudinal team communication to glimpse into the inner workings of teams. Our efforts provide insights into what, when, how, and why team communication changes over time, including any corresponding impact on performance. Further, we have shown that conditions under which teams are collaborating matter. In this chapter, we bring these insights together to look holistically at what has been learned from this research. In particular, we translate the research findings into specific research recommendations and on-the-ground managerial implications. We then articulate the theoretical contributions that may be derived from our efforts and the value of expanding team researchers’ methodological toolboxes. While acknowledging the limitations of our study, we advance opportunities for new research in this area. We end with concluding thoughts about longitudinal team communication and the importance of considering it to be an integral component of a team’s journey worthy of focused consideration.

Use of simulation in undergraduate nursing education is increasing. Although research results indicate it is an effective teaching–learning strategy, little is published about how to sustainably manage the infrastructure necessary to effectively run a simulation laboratory. This article describes a collaboration with industrial engineers to develop an inventory control system that minimizes the burden on available resources, accommodates fluctuations in simulation utilization, and does not require inventory management software. The new system reduced space requirements for inventory storage by 68%, time to manage inventory by 53%, and carrying costs by 38% even with increased center utilization. Taking time to design a structured approach to inventory storage and a pull system to manage inventory reordering may be extremely beneficial to simulation centers. Our improvements highlight the potential for reducing the amount of time and money dedicated to inventory-related activities and the benefit of partnering with colleagues, such as industrial engineers, whose expertise can facilitate process redesign. More importantly in an academic setting, the time and money saved allows faculty and staff to engage in value-added activities that will enhance student learning.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES To elucidate the terminology associated with preceptorships, articulate an operational description of preceptorship that may be useful in formalising the precepting process and provide guidance for constructing a clinical environment where precepting can thrive. BACKGROUND Precepting facilitates the transition of nurses into new roles. Precepting may improve patient outcomes and safety, as well as enhance nursing satisfaction. Most research focuses on preceptor preparation and perceptions. A comprehensive operational description of what is required to formalise the precepting process is missing from the literature. DESIGN This concept analysis was completed using a combination of Walker and Avant's and Rodger's methods. METHODS Existing literature relating to preceptorship was reviewed. Critical attributes, antecedents, consequences and empirical referents were identified. Model, contrary, related and borderline cases were developed. RESULTS Preceptorships have the specific attributes of being (i) one-on-one relationships, (ii) embedded within formalised programmes, (iii) that evolve over set amounts of time, (iv) to systematically facilitate practical experiences. Antecedents include how precepting is triggered and organisational supporting activities that may facilitate effective precepting. Consequences include new hire preparedness, confidence and increased retention. Empirical referents are provided for assessing hands-on clinical expertise, individualisation of precepting programmes and the preceptor-preceptee relationship. CONCLUSIONS This concept analysis provides a holistic view of the precepting process that shifts the focus from the people or checklist to formalised preceptorships. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE Continuity throughout an organisation's system streamlines the process of hiring new employees and transitioning nursing students to practice. Organisational policies, dedicated resources and engagement in systematically improving the precepting process are critical. Nurse managers must promote and support formalised preceptorships by providing preceptors and preceptees the time and space needed and fostering a culture that supports preceptorships.

Researchers have examined various outcomes of undergraduate minority mentoring programs. However, there is a significant gap in research about how program members with different demographic backgro...

Background: Nurse educators are constantly revising curricula to ensure that graduating nurses have the requisite skills for today's fast-paced, rapidly changing, nonlinear complex care environment. Key nursing education and practice organizations identify systems thinking and quality improvement as essential skills for nurses at the point of care. Method: Systems thinking and quality improvement were embedded across a Bachelor of Nursing (BSN) curriculum in a manner that does not dislocate other, more traditional content. Results: To date, approximately 500 students have been exposed to the new BSN curriculum. Sustainable approaches, preliminary results, lessons learned, and recommendations for sustainability and replication are discussed. Conclusion: Integrating systems thinking and quality improvement with traditional content across the entire undergraduate curriculum exposes students to increasingly sophisticated real-world experiences that highlight the relevance and significance of these skills in the health care context. Feedback from practice partners suggests this approach helps bridge the education and practice gap. [ J Nurs Educ. 2017;56(12):752–757.]

The purpose of this literature review is to examine studies evaluating preceptorships within nursing orientation or education programs. Nursing education in the classroom focuses on the theoretical aspect of nursing care as opposed to the clinical experience of nursing education that allows for the hands-on practical experience of nursing. The clinical experience is an integral part of the education process for both students and experienced nurses at various career transitions. Quality clinical experiences require practice partnerships, particularly in the form of preceptorships. Using data reported in previous studies, we examined preceptor selection criteria and responsibilities, motivators to encourage nurses to serve as preceptors, and preceptors' and preceptees' perceptions about the preceptor role. By synthesizing the literature describing previous orientation programs, we underscore the importance of the preceptor in the precepting process associated with orientation or clinical education programs. This review culminates with an evidence-based design for devising policy governing preceptor programs. Specifically, suggestions are forwarded for (1) preceptor selection, preparation, responsibilities, support, and workload and (2) preceptee preparation and support.

The purpose of this paper is to describe a short term study abroad program that exposes engineering and nursing undergraduate students from the United States and Italy to an intercultural and interprofessional immersion experience . Faculty fr om Purdue University and Sapienza Università di Roma collaborated to design a technical program that demonstrates the complementary nature of engineering and public health in the service sector, with Rome as an integral component of the program. S pecifically, the intersection of topics including systems, reliability, process flow, maintenance management, and public health are covered through online lectures, in class activities and case study discussions, field experiences, and assessments. Here in, administrat ive issues such as student recruitment, selection, and preparation are elucidated. Additionally, the pedagogical approach used to ensure constructive alignment among the program goals, the intended learning outcomes, and the teaching and learning activitie s is described. Finally, examples of learning outcomes resulting from this alignment are provided.

The Patient-Centered Medical Home care model emphasizes efficient, coordinated care distributed among interdisciplinary team members. One key function to care coordination is referral/test tracking. This study evaluated the referral practices in a nurse-managed Patient-Centered Medical Home primary care clinic. The major findings corroborate the need for a well-organized referral-tracking system that is centralized and contains safety nets to reduce the number of delayed or missed referrals.

Aim The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of using concept maps as a teaching and learning strategy on students' critical thinking abilities and examine students' perceptions toward concept maps utilizing the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. Background Researchers have found that almost two thirds of nurse graduates do not have adequate critical thinking skills for a beginner nurse. Critical thinking skills are required for safe practice and mandated by accrediting organizations. Nursing educators should consider teaching and learning strategies that promote the development of critical thinking skills. Method A literature review was conducted using "concept maps, nursing education, and critical thinking" as the combined search terms. Inclusion criteria were studies that measured the effects of concept mapping on critical thinking in nursing students. Results Seventeen articles were identified. Conclusion Concept maps may be useful tools to promote critical thinking in nursing education and for applying theory to practice.

Social community may be a mechanism that explains the success of minority mentoring programs. We define a social community as an environment where like-minded individuals engage in dynamic, multidirectional interactions that facilitate social support. In this conceptual article, we propose a social community model for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics minority mentoring programs to understand how a community’s program values, resources, and activities play a role in the learning and enrichment of its members. Using a social exchange lens, we: (a) define social community relative to minority mentoring programs, (b) examine how program elements facilitate social community, and (c) discuss participant outcomes beyond programmatic outcomes. A summary of our continuing research, preliminary findings, and future research recommendations are also detailed.

Aim The aim of this analysis was to define survivor in the cancer context. Background Cancer survivor has been used in the cancer lexicon, but may not represent the individuals it defines. Design This concept analysis was completed according to Walker and Avant's method. Data sources PubMed, PsychInfo, CINAHL, JSTOR, Google and medical and public health websites. Review methods Thirty sources from multiple disciplines, published between 1987–2013, were analysed for recurrent themes and conceptual meaning. Critical attributes, antecedents and consequences were extrapolated. Model, related and contrary cases were developed based on an amalgamation of clinical observations. Illegitimate, borderline and invented cases were excluded for this reason. Results Survivor in the cancer context is an individual with a history of malignancy, who has lived through a personalized challenge and has ongoing positive and negative consequences. Not all cancer survivors would identify themselves using the term survivor. Conclusions This contributes to the paradigm shift of cancer as a chronic disease as it establishes the unique nature of the cancer experience while highlighting the long-term concerns related to this set of diseases. The Theory of Uncertainty in Illness provides a framework to understand the individualized nature of being a cancer survivor. Nursing research and practice should address the personal experiences of cancer survivors while still focusing on general survivorship needs.

Aims and objectives To qualitatively investigate the medical-surgical nurse shift handoff as a process within the workflow of the exchanging nurses. Specifically, this study sought to identify the ideal handoff, ways the handoff deviated from ideal, and subsequent effect on nursing care. Background The functions as well as information content of the handoff have been studied. However, typical studies look at the handoff as an isolated activity utilising nurse perceptions as the primary measure of quality. Design Semi-structured focus groups were conducted to discuss nurses' perspectives on ideal handoffs, ways handoffs deviate from the ideal including frequent and significant deviations and the effects on subsequent care. Methods Twenty-one medical-surgical nurses participated in one of five audio-taped focus group sessions. Three sessions were conducted at hospital A; two sessions at unaffiliated hospital B. The general inductive approach was used to analyse verbatim transcripts. Transcript segments relevant for answering the research questions were coded as ideal or not ideal. Conceptual themes were then developed. Result Two major themes were identified: teams/teamwork and constructing and communicating a shared understanding of the patients' conditions. The importance of nurse preparatory activities was revealed including the incoming nurses reading patients' health records and outgoing nurses rounding on patients. The impact of shared expectations was identified across the team, where teams include, in addition to the two nurses, the electronic health record, other hospital staff and patients/families with a bedside handoff. New potential nurse-centred process and outcome measures were proposed. Conclusions Evaluating handoffs by their effect on the nursing performance both during and after the handoff offers a new framework to objectively assess handoff effectiveness. Relevance to clinical practice The handoff is a process which may significantly affect the incoming nurse's transition into and administration of nursing care.

Background: Safety, quality improvement, and a systems perspective are vital for nurses to provide quality evidence-based care. Responding to the call to prepare nurses with these perspectives, one school of nursing used a clinical scholar approach, enhanced by systems engineering to more intentionally develop the ability to clinically reason and apply evidence-based practice. Method: A two-group, repeated-measures control trial was used to determine the effects of systems engineering content and support on nursing students' clinical judgment and critical thinking skills. Results: Findings indicated this approach had a positive effects on student's clinical judgment and clinical reasoning skills. This approach helped students view health care issues from a broader perspective and use evidence to guide solution development, enhancing the focus on evidence-based practice, and quality improvement. Conclusion: Intentional integration of an evidence-based, systems perspective by nursing faculty supports development of nurses who can function safely and effectively in the current health care system. [ J Nurs Educ. 2017;56(11):679–682.]

Some examinations of group processes may require intensive data collection to answer initial research questions. Findings, however, often lead to more research questions that could be answered if additional data were available. In cases where collecting additional data is cost prohibitive, researchers may benefit from formulating “what-if” questions that can be answered via simulation and virtual experimentation. This chapter presents a step-by-step guide to demonstrate (1) how simulation procedures can be developed and validated with existing empirical data and (2) how these procedures can be executed to conduct virtual experiments. To demonstrate these steps, we provide a tutorial based on potential what-if questions about two different aspects of the relationship between team cohesion and team effectiveness using continuous and discrete empirical data, respectively, along with Matlab code for the simulation, validation, and virtual experimentation. We then present two more complex examples from our own published papers.

Lateral coordination among department heads is an overlooked aspect of project management research. Our research addresses this issue by examining the effects of the amount and quality of coordination among department heads on 60 cross-functional project teams. The results of this study reveal some interesting findings. First, better quality of coordination among department heads is associated with lower boundary conflict between the cross-functional project team and department heads and also improved project efficiency. Our results also suggest that early definition of project goals is positively associated with better quality of coordination among department heads. Implications and future research are discussed.

The increasingly complex needs of patients with cancer and their families call for a multidisciplinary team to achieve optimal patient outcomes. The purpose of the current article is to describe a teamwork model that can be used to address the needs of patients and the challenges associated with a healthcare system. The teamwork model was developed to address the mechanism needed to establish a paradigm shift in achieving high-quality patient care through effective teamwork.

Aim To report an analysis of the concept of shared mental models in health care. Background Shared mental models have been described as facilitators of effective teamwork. The complexity and criticality of the current healthcare system requires shared mental models to enhance safe and effective patient/client care. Yet, the current concept definition in the healthcare literature is vague and, therefore, difficult to apply consistently in research and practice. Design Concept analysis. Data sources Literature for this concept analysis was retrieved from several databases, including CINAHL, PubMed and MEDLINE (EBSCO Interface), for the years 1997–2013. Methods Walker and Avant's approach to concept analysis was employed and, following Paley's guidance, embedded in extant theory from the team literature. Results Although teamwork and collaboration are discussed frequently in healthcare literature, the concept of shared mental models in that context is not as commonly found but is increasing in appearance. Our concept analysis defines shared mental models as individually held knowledge structures that help team members function collaboratively in their environments and are comprised of the attributes of content, similarity, accuracy and dynamics. Conclusion This theoretically grounded concept analysis provides a foundation for a middle-range descriptive theory of shared mental models in nursing and health care. Further research concerning the impact of shared mental models in the healthcare setting can result in development and refinement of shared mental models to support effective teamwork and collaboration.

Patients scheduled for primary care appointments often cancel or no show. For diabetic patients, nonattendance can affect continuity of care and result in higher emergency department (ED) and hospital use. Nonattendance also impacts appointment scheduling, patient access, and clinic work load. While no show has received significant attention, little research has addressed the prevalence and impact of appointment cancellation. Data on 46,710 appointments for 7586 adult diabetic patients was used to conduct a prospective cohort study examining primary care appointment behavior. The independent variable was the status of the INDEX appointment, which was attended, cancelled, or no showed. Dependent variables included the dates of (1) the last attended appointment, (2) scheduling the NEXT appointment, (3) the next attended follow-up appointment, and (4) ED visits and hospitalizations within six months of the INDEX. Cancellation was more prevalent than no show (17.7% vs 12.2%). Of those who cancelled and scheduled a next appointment, 28.8% experienced over 30 days delay between the INDEX and NEXT appointment dates, and 59.9% delayed rescheduling until on or after the cancelled appointment date. Delay in rescheduling was associated with an 18.6% increase in days between attended appointments and a 26.0% increase in ED visits. For diabetic patients, cancellation with late rescheduling is a prevalent and unhealthy behavior. Although more work is necessary to address the health, intervention, and cost issues, this work suggests that cancellation, like no show, may be problematic for many clinics and patients.

College is a time when young adults establish lifestyle habits. This research examines how personalization and limited resources might be balanced most effectively when designing incentives to shift college students’ intentions toward positive dietary changes. A randomized 2 × 2 experiment (Coaching/Coupons × Fruits and Vegetables/Low Fat) was conducted, where respondents were exposed to virtual interventions and asked pre- and post-intervention about their intent to eat healthy. Results suggest that interventions may incentivize students, but are dependent on student characteristics. On-campus students and students with more knowledge about healthy diets were more likely to increase their intent when offered coaching; students living off campus and those with less knowledge resonated with coupons. On- and off-campus students differed in their positive responses to eating fruits and vegetables versus low fat foods, respectively. Younger students may be more susceptible to interventions. Findings may be useful in designing meaningful incentives for college students.

This article describes the process of using an interprofessional team project to address one of the most commonly occurring challenges in health care delivery—medication reconciliation. We describe the planning and execution of the process and the lessons learned from the experience. The intent of this article is to document the significance of each process and the importance of each member involved in the process, and to act as a guideline for institutions planning similar interprofessional team project experiences for students.

Leader–member exchange (LMX) ratings from 375 supervisor–subordinate pairs were used to examine employee outcomes within the context of leader and member agreement/disagreement on the quality of their exchange relationship. The outcomes of interest included members’ turnover intentions and actual turnover within the 6 months following the initial survey. Results indicate that outcomes varied across the different dyadic relationships. Furthermore, the LMX variable (i.e., the leader’s rating, member’s rating, or both) that was significantly related to intent to turnover and actual turnover when both LMX variables were added to the model simultaneously was contingent on the nature of the LMX relationship being examined.

Drawing on social exchange theory, we explore the reciprocal relationship between the perception of being offered family-oriented benefits (childcare information services and childcare vouchers) and parent-employees’ engagement in organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). We examine the moderating role of both general and family-oriented social support from coworkers, an often cited, but less frequently studied aspect of parent-employees’ work experiences. Based on survey data from parent-employees and their supervisors in the United States, we find that the strength of the relationship between the benefits and OCBs varies when coworker support is high versus low and that the direction of the relationship varies according to the type of coworker support. Specifically, the relationship between OCBs and childcare vouchers is more sensitive to differences in the level of general support (i.e., when high, OCB increases), whereas for childcare information, the relationship is more sensitive to levels of family-oriented support (i.e., when high, OCB decreases).

Concepts of Operations (CONOPS) are documents describing the characteristics and intended usage of proposed and existing systems. They provide information about the requirements and future desired states the project aims to achieve. We reviewed 22 recent CONOPS from government and private sector institutions to ascertain the current approach to CONOPS development. Based on the CONOPS review and research literature, we highlight three key areas, stakeholder involvement, shared mental models, and visualization, through which the development process may be improved. Moreover, we suggest that the development process itself may be transformed into an agile process that addresses current shortcomings in the key areas. To do so, we propose an agile CONOPS development process conducted through three iteration-driven phases and present corresponding research and commercial tools that may be leveraged at each phase. As such, putting this agile process into effect may reduce development time, improve effectiveness, and change the perception of the CONOPS from a burdensome documentation procedure to an invaluable resource throughout the system lifecycle. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Research using empirical methods has established a curvilinear relationship between team communication and performance. We conduct virtual experiments to examine team communication and performance when teams work under varying types and levels of project complexity. Data samples, generated using Monte Carlo simulation, are based on the statistical characteristics of empirical data collected from 60 cross-functional project teams that communicated over multiple media (email, phone, and face-to-face) and were completing projects of varying complexity. Regression analysis indicates that project complexity influences the communication-performance relationship. Optimization shows that the communication frequencies at which teams maximize or minimize their performance are dependent upon media used.

The success of teams working together over multiple meetings may depend on how processes develop at initial meetings. Computer-mediated tools, in particular, may hinder team process development which may set the stage for shortcomings later. One recommendation is to hold the initial team meeting face to face. Herein, we examine social processes over time and whether computer-mediated teams completing their first session face to face can offset the shortcomings in process development and outcomes in their second session. Using longitudinal data we test the differences in, and relationships among, processes and outputs across teams that met twice as computer mediated, twice as face to face, or as mixed media (first as face to face and second as computer mediated). Results indicate computer-mediated teams reported lower participative decision making than face-to-face teams after the first session and the disparity continued at the second session. Mixed-media teams, however, had improved participative decision making over pure computer-mediated teams in the long run. Further, mixed-media teams reported team satisfaction similar to pure face-to-face teams and delivered a task performance between that of pure computer-mediated and pure face-to-face teams. Interestingly, mixed-media teams experienced increased conflict over time, while conflict in pure media teams decreased. Our results suggest that practitioners may want to require an initial face-to-face session (i.e., more than just a meet and greet) to prepare members to work together in the future.

The Cognitively-Based Rapid Assessment Methodology (C-RAM) system manages multiple-user interactions as users work with multiple information sources. Further, it allows users to view, exchange, organize, and combine the information available and it facilitates group decision-making. Three-member teams, randomly assigned in either the (a) view others' whiteboards or (b) cannot view others' whiteboards conditions, completed an intelligence analysis and mission planning task. Each team member was given access to a virtual whiteboard populated with decision cards (DCards) containing intelligence information constrained to a specific area of expertise. DCards can be assessed (rated) for decision impact and importance and team members have access to all DCards regardless of experimental condition. Team members who can view their teammates' whiteboards during collaborative activities achieve significantly higher performance. When compared to teams unable to view others' whiteboards, they move their own DCards less frequently, add fewer additional DCards to their own whiteboards, and rate others' DCards less frequently. Additionally, rating one's own DCards is the only process positively related team performance.