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Anastrepha ludens is a polyphagous frugivorous tephritid that infests citrus and mango. Here, we report the establishment of a laboratory colony of A. ludens reared on a larval medium that is a waste for the citrus industry, specifically, orange (Citrus × sinensis) fruit bagasse. After 24 generations of rearing on a nutritionally poor orange bagasse diet, pupae weighed 41.1% less than pupae from a colony reared on a nutritionally rich artificial diet. Larvae from the orange bagasse diet had 6.94% less protein content than larvae from the artificial diet, although their pupation rate was similar. Males from the orange bagasse diet produced a scent bouquet with 21 chemical compounds and were sexually competitive, but they had significantly shorter copulations when compared to males from the artificial diet and from the wild host, Casimiroa edulis, which had relatively simple scent bouquets. The chemical complexity in the odors of males from the orange bagasse diet might initially have attracted females to novel scent combinations, but, once in the copula, they may have been able to sense negative characteristics in males, leading them to terminate copulations soon after they began. We conclude that A. ludens can adjust morphological, life history, nutritional, and chemical traits when adapted to a larval environment consisting of fruit bagasse.

There is an important lack of knowledge regarding the mechanisms and morphology of the structures involved in the feeding process of the bee‐mimicking eristaline flower fly species (Diptera: Syrphidae). In order to look more deeply into their larval feeding biology, a morphological study of the head skeleton and the external feeding structures of the three larval instars of Eristalis tenax (L.) and Eristalinus aeneus (Scopoli), important pollinators and bioindicators of water quality, was carried out, using scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Additionally, an analysis of the ingested particle size was conducted, using various pollen grains and fungal spores. The main differences, found between the third instars of both species, consisted of the more restrictive mandibular lobes of E. tenax, which prevent the ingestion of bigger particles, and a wider filtering area in the cibarium of E. aeneus, which increases the number of particles that can be retained and ingested. Eristalinus aeneus is able to ingest bigger particles (80–100 μm) than E. tenax (70–80 μm). These results suggest that the structures involved in the feeding process of E. aeneus are less restrictive, thus increasing its survival chances when, under artificial rearing conditions, the same medium is used for both species. This study may contribute to the improvement in artificial rearing for future studies on pollination and decomposition. The project has been funded by the Spanish Ministry of Universities (MIU) in the frame of the FPU grant (FPU19-01985).

A model based upon mechanics is used in a re-analysis of historical acarine morphological work augmented by an extra seven zoophagous mesostigmatid species. This review shows that predatory mesostigmatids do have cheliceral designs with clear rational purposes. Almost invariably within an overall body size class, the switch in predatory style from a worm-like prey feeding (‘crushing/mashing’ kill) functional group to a micro-arthropod feeding (‘active prey cutting/slicing/slashing' kill) functional group is matched by: an increased cheliceral reach, a bigger chelal gape, a larger morphologically estimated chelal crunch force, and a drop in the adductive lever arm velocity ratio of the chela. Small size matters. Several uropodines (Eviphis ostrinus, the omnivore Trachytes aegrota, Urodiaspis tecta and, Uropoda orbicularis) have more elongate chelicerae (greater reach) than their chelal gape would suggest, even allowing for allometry across mesostigmatids. They may be: plesiosaur-like high-speed strikers of prey, scavenging carrion feeders (like long-necked vultures), probing/burrowing crevice feeders of cryptic nematodes, or small morsel/fragmentary food feeders. Some uropodoids have chelicerae and chelae which probably work like a construction-site mechanical excavator-digger with its small bucket. Possible hoeing/bulldozing, spore-cracking and tiny sabre-tooth cat-like striking actions are discussed for others. Subtle changes lead small mesostigmatids to be predator–scavengers (mesocarnivores) or to be predator–fungivores (hypocarnivores). Some uropodines (e.g., the worm-like prey feeder Alliphis siculus and, Uropoda orbicularis) show chelae similar in design to astigmatids and cryptostigmatids indicating possible facultative saprophagy. Scale matters—obligate predatory designs (hypercarnivory) start for mesostigmatids with chelal gape > 150 μm and cheliceral reach > 350 μm (i.e., about 500–650 μm in body size). Commonality of trophic design in these larger species with solifugids is indicated. Veigaia species with low chelal velocity ratio and other morphological strengthening specialisms, appear specially adapted in a concerted way for predating active soft and fast moving springtails (Collembola). Veigaia cerva shows a markedly bigger chelal gape than its cheliceral reach would proportionately infer suggesting it is a crocodile-like sit-and-wait or ambush predator par excellence. A small chelal gape, low cheliceral reach, moderate velocity ratio variant of the worm-like feeding habit design is supported for phytoseiid pollenophagy. Evidence for a resource partitioning model in the evolution of gnathosomal development is found. A comparison to crustacean claws and vertebrate mandibles is made. Alliphis siculus and Rhodacarus strenzkei are surprisingly powerful mega-cephalics for their small size. Parasitids show a canid-like trophic design. The chelicera of the nematophagous Alliphis halleri shows felid-like features. Glyphtholaspis confusa has hyaena-like cheliceral dentition. The latter species has a markedly smaller chelal gape than its cheliceral reach would suggest proportionately, which together with a high chelal velocity ratio and a high estimated chelal crunch force matches a power specialism of feeding on immobile tough fly eggs/pupae by crushing (durophagy). A consideration of gnathosomal orientation is made. Predatory specialisms appear to often match genera especially in larger mesostigmatids, which may scale quite differently. Comparison to holothyrids and opilioacarids indicates that the cheliceral chelae of the former are cutting-style and those of the latter are crushing-style. A simple validated easy-to-use ‘2:1 on’ predictive algorithm of feeding habit type is included based on a strength-speed tradeoff in chelal velocity ratio for ecologists to test in the field.

Saprophages obtain nourishment from dead organisms and associated material and are considered in this chapter. The diet of a saprophagous larva consists typically of microbes responsible or associated with decay processes, such as bacteria and yeasts, moulds and sometimes algae and protozoa. Larvae imbibe liquid suspensions of these organisms and may or may not filter them and expel the excess liquid back into the environment. Relationships between saprophagous larvae and microbes vary from straightforward exploitation to under-crowding or Allee effects and mutualisms. Their influence on the dynamics of decay processes is equally varied from having little effect to spreading, maintaining and accelerating it. Saprophagy appears to be the groundplan cyclorrhaphan larval feeding mode and a shift from predatory ancestors. Numerous small to large saprophagous cyclorrhaphan lineages exist, and switches to and from saprophagy appear to be frequent. Obligate saprophages are a diverse source of specialisations, and facultative saprophages provide insight into switching routes between feeding modes. Diverse communities of saprophagous larvae can be found at more or less continuous microhabitats and at an almost limitless range of discrete ones where competition for resources may be intense. Niche partitioning and ecological succession are also characteristic and due to such processes saprophagous larvae make significant contributions to cyclorrhaphan diversification and to terrestrial habitat biodiversity and maintenance.

The life cycle of Compsobata univitta (Walker, 1849) is described. Larvae are saprophagous, feeding on moist, decomposing vegetation. Data on the habitat, distribution, phenology, behavior, and feeding habits are presented. Morphological features of the egg, three larval instars, and puparium are figured and described.

Diversity in Peru: 4 subfamilies, 22 genera, 63 species. Recognition: This family may be recognized by the following combination of adult characters: maxilla lacking galea; antennae typically 11-segmented, with terminal three antennomeres forming a club; antennal insertions moderately to broadly separated; subocular antennal grooves on ventral surface of head present; procoxae transverse with exposed trochantins; prosternum transverse with intercoxal process extending between procoxal cavities, procoxae always separated; mesoventral procoxal rests present; typically five visible abdominal ventrites present; metendosternite stalk present; metasternum with discrimen present; and tarsal formula 5-5-5. Habitat: Several recent comprehensive reviews of Nitidulidae biology are available (Jelinek et al., 2010; Cline, 2005; Audisio et al., 2000; Audisio, 1993). Overall, nitidulid beetles exhibit a diverse set of life history strategies, including: fungivory, saprophagy, phytophagy, pollination activities, facultative predation, necrophagy, frugivory, and inquilinism with social insects. Nitidulids may be collected using a variety of directed (sweeping and beating vegetation/inflorescences, sifting leaf litter, searching under bark and various fungal substrates, as well as in nests of social Hymenoptera) and passive techniques (flight intercept traps, pitfall traps, malaise traps, and mercury vapor or black lights at night). Large numbers of nitidulids can typically be found in palm inflorescences (e.g., Mytrops and related genera); baited fruit or molasses traps (Carpophilus, Colopterus, Brachypeplus, Amphicrossus, Lobiopa, and Cryptarcha), and sifting leaf litter (Stelidota). Notes: Nitidulidae have long been confused with numerous other families of Cucujoidea. In particular, members of Cybocephalidae, Kateretidae, Monotomidae, Cryptophagidae, Biphyllidae, Smicripidae, and Erotylidae have been attributed to Nitidulidae. Recent and upcoming work on the New World Kateretidae (Cline and Audisio, 2010, and unpubl. data) will help improve the diagnostic capabilities for Nitidulidae. A recent treatment of Nitidulidae higher level phylogenetics formally elevated Cybocephalidae to family status and provided an extensive list of adult and larval characters to differentiate this group from Nitidulidae (Cline et al., 2014). Invasive species such as Urophorus humeralis (F.), Epuraea luteola Erichson, and Carpophilus hemipterus (L.) likely occur in the country as they have been transported around the world in various agricultural commodities, in conjunction with several other alien species more or less recently introduced into Peru (Carrasco, 1986; Leschen and Marris, 2005; EPPO, 2010). However, there are no existing records for

Direct observation, filmed behaviour and morphological analysis were used to investigate mechanisms of larval feeding and movement in 20 species of Cyclorrhapha (Diptera). Feeding mechanisms refer to techniques of gathering food close to the pharynx entrance prior to sucking it in. A total of 12 mechanisms were recorded. Contrasting mechanisms were associated with saprophagy, phytophagy, mycophagy and zoophagy. Larvae had role-specific, compartmentalised bodies. The rear compartment grips substrates enabling the front ones to scan for food by sweeping from side to side or up and down. The front compartments extend or lunge to gather food or grip substrates during locomotion. Lower cyclorrhaphans had more disparate mechanisms than higher cyclorrhaphans. In the latter, the size, shape and movements of the thorax, pseudocephalon and head skeleton are diverse. Influences on this diversity are food quality and access conditions at development sites. Movement capabilities and functions were established for many...

The sentinel prey method can quantify predation pressure in various habitats. Real prey is assumed to more realistically mimic the predator experience but the predator can rarely be identified. Artificial prey made of plasticine may lack real chemical cues, but provides information about predator identity. However, the relationship between predation pressure registered by artificial versus real prey is not clear. We tested the relative attractiveness of artificial caterpillars, and intact, wounded, or dead larvae of the cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae) for the carabid predator Pterostichus melanarius Illiger (Coleoptera: Carabidae). P. melanarius adults were attracted to dead caterpillars more than to live or wounded ones. Coating artificial caterpillars with caterpillar haemolymph increased their attractiveness. However, predators were not attracted more to healthy, real caterpillars than to “untreated” artificial ones. We conclude that using artificial caterpillars does not underestimate predation pressure by this carabid on healthy caterpillars.

In this chapter the host plant signals that are utilized by the herbivores of millets for their orientation toward the host are discussed. The plant volatiles, morphological features, and visual cues involved in host selection and orientation processes are detailed with suitable examples. Host specialization and host ranges of various species of insects associated with millets are given in detail. The evolution of feeding habits in shoot flies and stem borers is presented. The evolution of phytophagy in shoot flies is discussed vis-a-vis other closely related phytophagous muscid flies. The biogeography of pest groups specialized in millet plant feeding is explained with information on the distribution and spread of insects and host plants.

A new sap beetle species, Lobiopa penrosei Cline & Kinnee sp. nov., is described from Baja California Sur, Mexico. Habitus and genitalia images are provided. Major characters distinguishing L. penrosei include: dorsal surface setation consisting of all light colored thin and spatulate/subclavate setae with no dark to piceous setae present; spatulate/subclavate setae straight/erect not curved; and internal sac sclerites of male genitalia with a paired basal field of spines as well as ejaculatory rods with constricted bases. A review of Lobiopa Erichson is given, including biological notes on some of the inclusive members as well as a checklist of all described species.

The Acari is the most numerous and diverse group of the subphylum Chelicerata. With approximately 55 000 described species (and estimates of up to 1 million extant species), their adaptations for parasitism, phytophagy, mycophagy, saprophagy and predation rival other arthropods and challenge us with a wide variety of biological interactions. While a few studies have unravelled the nature of some endosymbiotic associations between mites or ticks and prokaryotes, almost nothing has been done yet regarding acarine eukaryotic ectosymbionts. Microbial ectosymbionts can benefit their hosts by providing nutrients, by aiding digestion, by enhancing communication, by assisting in mating and/or fertilization, by protecting their host against pathogenic microorganisms, against predation and so on. In this sketch, we introduce a number of described cases of fungal and protist ectosymbionts and discuss the role they might play in the life of their acarine hosts.

The larvae of most Tephritidae are endobiotic in various living plants and are therefore convenient objects for analysis of the associations of this dipteran family with seed plants. The structure of the sclerites and musculature of the ovipositor of Lenitovena trigona (Matsumura) a Far Eastern tephritid of the tribe Acanthonevrini with initially saprobiont larva, was investigated to facilitate understanding of the morphological changes in the adults associated with larval shift from saprophagous to herbivorous habit. Differences between the ovipositor of L. trigona and those of species of the genera Urophora, Ceratitis, and Rhagoletis with endophytic larvae have been found; the ovipositor musculature of these genera has been described by Dean (1935), Nanna (1938), and Berube and Zacharuk (1983).

The third stage larva and puparium of the cerioidine hoverflies, Ceriana vespiformis (Latreille, 1804) and Sphiximorpha subsessilis (Illiger in Rossi, 1807) and the milesine, Spilomyia digitata (Rondani, 1865) (Diptera, Syrphidae) are described from specimens collected in the field. Ceriana vespiformis and S. digitata larvae were obtained from wet, decaying roots and tree holes of Fraxinus angustifolius L., respectively, in Spain and S. subsessilis from an exudation of sap on an Abies alba Miller tree in France.

In semi-arid Iberian ecosystems, the dung beetle community associated with rabbit dung heaps shows high complexity in spite of adverse factors, such as the low water and nutritional content of rabbit pellets and the arid climate of environments. A total of 24 species showing optional telecoprid, paracoprid and endocoprid (including kleptocoprid) patterns were studied. Acquisition of many morphological adaptations from aridity (flightlessness), exploitation of dry dung (mouthpart modifications) and behavioural specializations are described. These adaptations may explain the exploitation of dry dung and the high rate of endemism observed in the dung beetle community studied. All morphological and behavioural specializations described can be considered as derived characters for the exploitation of fibrous and dry dung, showing a secondary evolutionary line that suggests the return of these beetles to saprophagy.

The larval morphology of Aphodius (Plagiogonus) nanus Fairmaire, 1860 and A. (P.) arenarius (Olivier, 1789) are described and redescribed, respectively. The common characters of both species, and the specific diagnostic characters are provided and discussed. The most important morphological characters of the larvae of Plagiogonus Mulsant, 1842 are the longitudinal alignment of the anterior setae of the stipes, the spatulate form of the posterior-lateral setae of the glossae of the hypopharynx, the slight development of the anal lobe slit, the form of the epitorma of the epipharynx, the slight sclerotization of the pternotormae and the relative length of second antennal segment. A key to the larvae of both species of Plagiogonus is presented along with life history data and the preferred food of these species. This study shows that A. arenarius and A. nanus feeding habits are closer to saprophagy than to coprophagy.

The rhinoceros beetle Cyphonistes tuberculifrons Quedenfeldt 1884 (Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Dynastinae Oryctini) was attracted by different quinones in a gallery forest in northeastern Ivory Coast. Quinones are widespread in organic matter, e.g. in termite defensive secretions, fruit, rotting fruit, wood, and rotting wood. We consider the attraction to rotting wood, rotting fruit and perhaps attacked termite mounds to be the most probable function of the attractive effect of quinones on C. tuberculifrons. KEY WORDS: chemical ecology, primary attraction, quinone, xylosaprophagy, frugivory, saprophagy, Scarabaeidae, Dynastinae, Cyphonistes, Cote d’Ivoire.

We examined final-stage larvae of all currently recognized lower cyclorrhaphan (= Aschiza) families, except Ironomyiidae and Sciadoceridae, and those of the higher cyclorrhaphan (= Schizophora) families Calliphoridae, Conopidae, Lonchaeidae, Muscidae, and Ulidiidae, and compared them with larvae of two out-group families, Rhagionidae and Dolichopodidae, paying particular attention to structures of the head. A set of 86 morphological characters were analysed phylogenetically. The results show that the lower Cyclorrhapha is paraphyletic in relation to the higher Cyclorrhapha. The monophyly of the Cyclorrhapha is strongly supported. The lower Cyclorrhapha is resolved into two clades, based on the Lonchopteridae. Within the Syrphidae the traditional three-subfamily system is supported, based on the Microdontinae. Within the lower Cyclorrhapha, the larval head is variable in form and arrangement of components. In Lonchopteridae, the mouth lies at the back of an open trough or furrow, comprising ventrally an elongate labium and laterally the maxilla. This arrangement of components appears to facilitate scooping food in water films. In Platypezoidea there is no furrow, and the dorsolateral lobes bearing the antennae are connected by a dorsal extension of the pseudocephalon. The main food-gathering structure is the hooked apex of the labium, but in Phoridae the mandibles may also be important. In Eumuscomorpha the mandibles are at the apex of the head skeleton. The pseudocephalon is extended and infolded dorsally to form an oral pocket over the mouth. In the Pipunculidae, and the Microdontinae and Syrphinae of the Syrphidae, ventrally it forms a V-shaped groove or guide along which the mandibles project. The labium is sclerotized apically, and forms a plate or tapered projection. This arrangement of components facilitates holding, piercing and extracting prey tissues. In Eristalinae the pseudocephalon is attached to the mandibles and is formed into a pair of cirri bearing mandibular lobes that lie either side of the mouth. Furthermore, the epipharynx is produced anteriorly in relation to the hypopharynx, and the labium is attached to the anterior part of the epipharynx to form a cavity or atrium. This arrangement is suited to fragmenting and imbibing solid food in Eristalinae with hooked mandibles, and when the mandibles are reduced and the mandibular lobes are inverted and sclerotized, these structures form a filter for separating fluid-suspended particulate food. In higher Cyclorrhapha an atrium is present as in Eristalinae, but a connection between the pseudocephalon and the mandibles is absent. Instead, the pseudocephalon is bifurcate dorsally and forms a pair of cephalic lobes that ventrally ensheath each mandible. The surface of the sheath may be coated in cirri and other food-gathering structures. The cephalic lobes, mandibular sheaths and the head skeleton are maneuverable and retractile to a higher degree than in lower Cyclorrhapha. This arrangement of components facilitates feeding on both solid food, in which the mouthooks may extend from the sheath to break the food up, and particulate and suspended food, in which the food-gathering structures of the sheath scoop up the food. In many higher Cyclorrhapha, maneuverability is enhanced by a break between the labium and the basal sclerite, to which it is fused in all lower Cyclorrhapha. Intermediate characters and states for the structures of the higher cyclorrhaphan larval head are present in out-groups, and lower Cyclorrhapha and homologies are discussed. Liquidity of the food is an important factor explaining the structure of the larval head in Cyclorrhapha. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 153, 287‐323.

Two hundred and ninety-eight rearing records and 87 larvae and puparia were obtained of seven species of Palloptera Fallen (Diptera, Pallopteridae), mainly in Scotland during 2012–2013. The third stage larva and puparium of each species were assessed morphologically and development sites and feeding modes investigated by rearing, observation and feeding tests. Early stages appear to be distinguished by the swollen, apico-lateral margins of the prothorax which are coated in vestiture and a poorly developed anal lobe with few spicules. Individual pallopteran species are separated by features of the head skeleton, locomotory spicules and the posterior respiratory organs. Five species can be distinguished by unique character states. Observations and feeding tests suggest that the frequently cited attribute of zoophagy is accidental and that saprophagy is the primary larval feeding mode with autumn/winter as the main period of development. Food plants were confirmed for flowerhead and stem developing species and rain is important for maintaining biofilms on which larvae feed. Due to difficulties in capturing adults, especially males, the distribution and abundance of many pallopteran species is probably underestimated. Better informed estimates are possible if early stages are included in biodiversity assessments. To facilitate this for the species investigated, a key to the third stage larva and puparium along with details on finding them, is provided.

Despite the abundance and ubiquity of water mites, their importance as predators in freshwater communities is seldom investigated. This neglect is likely due both to the perceived difficulty in identifying aquatic mites, and to the lack of easily available information on the feeding habits of these animals. We review the literature on water mite feeding, translating (from German) the only previous compendium of predator-prey relationships, and adding recent reports and unpublished observations. Diets of 38 genera in 21 families are described. Reports of herbivory, detritivory, and saprophagy are dismissed and several trends are noted. Mites that eat insect eggs as adults tend to parasitize the same insect taxa during their parasitic larval stage. Lentic mites can be grouped into egg-specialists, those that concentrate on crustaceans, those that concentrate on insect larvae, and generalists. Lotic mites appear to feed primarily on chironomid larvae. A discussion of the predatory behaviour of water mites follows the compendium.

Based on a large collection of specimens associated with a decaying whale's skull trawled from 880 m depth in the South-west Pacific off Chatham Island, a new species belonging to the genus Phascolosoma (Sipuncula) is described. The presence of oil droplets within the gut suggests these sipunculans were saprophagic, the first evidence of such a habit within the phylum.

The third larval instar of Goliathus goliatus (Drury, 1770), Goliathus orientalis Moser, 1909 and Goliathus albosignatus Boheman, 1857 are described and illustrated for the first time and compared with the immature stages of other Cetoniinae. Larval development of Goliathus goliatus is investigated under laboratory conditions, with particular emphasis on food requirements. These results support the obligatory requirement of proteins in the larval diet. The association between larval morphological traits (e. g., the shape of the mandibles and pretarsus, presence of well-developed stemmata) and larval biology is discussed. Based on observations and the data from captive breeds it is concluded that a possible shift from pure saprophagy to an obligatory predaceous way of larval life occurred within the larvae of this genus, which may explain why these beetles achieve such an enormous size.

Se describen los tres estadios larvarios y la pupa de Euphoria basalis (Gory & Percheron, 1833) con base en ejemplares recolectados en San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Chiapas, México. Se incluyen ilustraciones diagnósticas y datos sobre el ciclo de vida y los hábitos de esta especie.

The morphological features of holometabolous insect larvae are generally regarded as caenogenetic in nature, reflecting an extensive adaptation to special environments. They are nonetheless significant systematically and phylogenetically, since they show the relationships among the forms possessing them (de Beer, 1940; Michener, 1953; Uchida, 1955; van Emden, 1957). Caenogenetic features appear to have evolved along two different lines, one a rather nonplastic and intrinsic, perhaps phylogenetic, trend subject to "general adaptation" (Brown, 1958) or likely to be represented by a continuum of "instar characters" (Asanuma, 1950); the other a rather plastic trend, variable according to the development of "special adaptation" (Brown, 1958) in response to varying environments. The two trends can be referred to as "general" and "special" caenogenetic trends, and they exhibit complicated interaction during both ontogeny and phylogeny. The intrinsic or phylogenetic trends in larval characters may result largely from pleiotropic effects of genes selected for in other stages, while the special larval characters not related to the phylogenetic trends may be adaptations to specific larval requirements. The present work was carried out with the aim of determining in what manner and to what extent these two trends are mutually interrelated, using as material the larval mouth hooks of the family Drosophilidae. The structure and metamorphosis of the buccal armatures of drosophilid larvae have been the subject of repeated investigation. In Drosophila melanogaster, for instance, Strasburger (1932) dealt with individual variation of the mouth hook dentition, while Alpatov (1929) showed on a statistical basis that there is no overlapping in number of teeth between any two successive instars. Bodenstein (1950) also reported that the number of teeth is useful as a means of distinguishing the three instars. Mayer (1935) observed in several species of Drosophila some structural differences in dentition between the left and right hooks of an individual larva. Sturtevant (1921) noted the function of the mouth hooks in mastication. Hennig (1952) believed that the development of the mouth hooks was associated with the strength of musculature and not fundamentally with the larval eating habits, e.g., saprophagy, fungus eating, and leaf mining. The present observations have revealed that there are some special caenogenetic relations in the structure of the mouth hooks to the feeding habits, as well as some general caenogenetic structures characteristic of each instar. Drosophilid larvae belonging to 51 species (table 1), mostly from Japan, furnished the material for this study. They were either reared from eggs laid by flies in captivity or obtained from natural breeding sites. The buccal armature of the first and second instar larvae was rather easily dissected out from larval exuviae found ir food media, as Bodenstein (1950) noticed and that of the third from the puparia] case. The specimens were cleaned by boiling in 10% KOH solution and mounted ir euparal-alcohol. The author wishes to express his cordia] thanks to Professor Daigoro Moriwaki Dean of the Faculty of Science, Tokyc Metropolitan University, for his kind guidance in this work. He is much obliged to Professor Sajiro Makino, Hokkaido University, who was kind enough to make arrangement for publishing the present work.