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Begonia is the world’s fastest-growing genus and a focus of intense taxonomic research. To support this, a stable and useful sectional classification is needed. This paper reviews the feasibility and challenges of creating an infrageneric classification for Begonia based on phylogenetic data, and how to overcome phylogenetic and taxonomic conflict. In particular, it (i) tests genus-wide patterns of incongruence between phylogenies based on the nuclear, chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes; (ii) explains organelle inheritance and its contribution to phylogenetic incongruence, and (iii) presents a manifesto for a workable and stable subgeneric classification in light of the above and lays the foundation for a collaborative Begonia Phylogeny Group.

Natural antioxidants present in several medicinal plants are responsible for inhibiting the harmful effects of oxidative stress. These plants contain polyphenols and flavonoids that act as free radical scavengers and reduce oxidative stress and may be an alternative remedy to cure various harmful human diseases. This study aims to quantify the total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC) and antioxidant properties of methanol extracts of fruits, seeds, and bark of an important medicinal and aromatic plant, Zanthoxylum armatum collected from wild and cultivated populations in Nepal. TPC was determined by Folin–Ciocalteu colorimetric method using gallic acid as standard, and various concentrations of the extract solutions were measured at 760 nm. TFC was calculated by aluminum chloride colorimetric assay. Quercetin was used as standard, and the absorbance was measured at 510 nm. The antioxidant potential of the different extracts was estimated by DPPH free radical scavenging assay, and the absorbance was measured at 517 nm. The highest TPC value was 226.3 ± 1.14 mg GAE/g in wild fruits, and the lowest was 137.72 ± 4.21 mg GAE/g in cultivated seeds. Similarly, the highest TFC value was 135.17 ± 2.02 mg QE/g in cultivated fruits, and the lowest was 76.58 ± 4.18 mg QE/g in cultivated seeds. The extracts showed variable antioxidant properties. The fruits exhibited excellent antioxidant properties with IC50 values of 40.62 μg/mL and 45.62 μg/mL for cultivated and wild fruits, respectively. Similarly, the IC50 values of the bark were 63.39 μg/mL and 67.82 μg/mL, respectively, for cultivated and wild samples. And the least antioxidant capacity was shown by the seeds extract with IC50 values of 86.75 μg/mL and 94.49 μg/mL for wild and cultivated seeds, respectively. The IC50 value of the standard ascorbic acid was 36.22 μg/mL. Different extracts of Z. armatum contain considerable amount of phenols and flavonoids, including antioxidant properties, suggesting the potential use of this species in pharmacy and phytotherapy as a source of natural antioxidants.

The fruits of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. were collected from different altitudes (1000–2000 m) and populations (wild and cultivated) from Salyan district, Nepal. The essential oil was extracted by Clevenger apparatus and the components were analyzed through GC-MS. The yield of essential oil obtained from hydro-distillation of fruits ranged from 2.72 to 7.6%. The maximum yield was 7.6% from wild fruits at 1600–1800 m altitude and the minimum was 2.72% from cultivated fruits at 1000–1200 m altitude. This was the highest recorded essential oil yield from Z. armatum fruits. A total of 13 volatile compounds were identified from the essential oil by GC-MS analysis. The major components were linalool, cinnamate (E)methyl, limonene, myrcene, sabinene and terpinen-4-ol, which were present in higher proportion in all the samples. Other components were identified in a very low proportion. The main component linalool occurred in the highest proportion (74.12%) from wild populations at 1600–1800 m altitude and the lowest (44.73%) was from cultivated populations at 1000–1200 m altitude. The highest proportion of linalool was also reported for the first time in this study from Z. armatum fruits. Among the six major components of the essential oil, terpinen-4-ol was present in the lowest proportion. Results of the present study indicated that the altitude and habitat types could affect the essential oil composition in Zanthoxylum armatum fruits.

Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murray is traditionally used in Nepal to treat several diseases, among whom inflammation and acute pain. Although several secondary metabolites from the same Hypericum species have been already characterized and considered for their pharmacological use, an exhaustive phytochemical characterization of H. japonicum from Nepal is lacking, as well as the assessment of its potential pharmacological properties. Hence, the aims of this study were the characterization of a methanolic extract of H. japonicum (HJME) collected from the Northern region of Nepal by LC–MSn and UPLC-QTOF. The assessment of in vitro inhibition of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and activator protein 1 (AP-1) transcription factors and HJME’s cytotoxic effect on human cell lines was performed to evaluate the potential use of this herb as a source of anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic lead compounds. Fifty-seven phytoconstituents were identified, being mainly flavonoids, phloroglucinols, phenolic acids and xanthones. Although compounds characteristic of H. japonicum were detected (quercetin, quercetin-7-O-α-l-rhamnoside, quercitrin and hyperoside), several others are here reported for the first time in this species. The results from bioassays indicated that HJME could significantly reduce the viability of human THP-1 cells (IC50 = 5.4 ± 1.1 μg mL−1), showing the promising potential of HJME as anti-tumor agent. Furthermore, HJME significantly decreased the activation of both NF-κB and AP-1 at the concentration of 2 μg mL−1. Overall, these data suggest that H. japonicum from Nepal could be used as a source of potential natural anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor lead compounds.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Zanthoxylum armatum DC. possesses several medicinal properties and has been commonly used in different indigenous medicinal practices to cure several diseases because of its stomachic, carminative and anthelmintic properties. Aim This review paper aims to provide an update on and analysis of information about the ecology, uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, trade opportunities, policy gaps for the commercialization of this species forming a basis for further scientific innovations Materials and methods Information was gathered through a search of different books, journals, articles, annual reports, proceedings and web-based materials. Result Alkaloids, sterols, phenolics, lignins coumarins, terpenoids and flavonoids have been identified from leaves, fruits, stem, bark and seeds. Its trade value is also very high with its manifold applications in Ayurveda, allopathy, general pharmacy, and other industries. Antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, hepato-protective, insecticidal/larvicidal effects are of particular relevance. Conclusion It is one of the prioritized medicinal plants for economic development in Nepal. Owing to its diverse applications, the species can be developed as an important commodity for alleviation of poverty in rural areas. The various ethno-pharmacological applications of Zanthoxylum armatum have been verified by several related researches. More extensive study on the individual specific phyto-component can lead to novel innovations for the well-being of mankind.

Variation in the composition of leaf essential oils of Zanthoxylum armatum in relation to altitude and soil chemistry was analyzed in Nepal. The essential oil was extracted by Clevenger apparatus and the components were analyzed through GC-MS. The results showed that: Yield of the essential oil obtained from the hydro-distillation of dried leaves ranged from 0.16% to 0.50%. GC-MS analysis revealed total of 17 compounds in the essential oil from the dried leaves of Z. armatum from different altitudes and populations (wild and cultivated). The three major components, linalool, limonene and undecan-2-one, present in higher proportion in all the samples were analyzed. Other components tridecan-2-one, myrcene, cinnamate(E)-methyl and alpha-bergamotene were also identified in most of the samples but in lower proportions. The highest number of components (12) was identified from the wild samples collected from 1990 m and the lowest number (7) was from 1060 m (wild) and 2030 m (cultivated populations). Linalool, a major component was found in higher amount (64.88%) at the lowest altitude of 1060 m. Results of the present study showed that the altitude, soil chemistry, and growing conditions significantly affect the essential oil components in Zanthoxylum armatum.

Locally harvested wild edible plants (WEPs) provide food as well as cash income for indigenous peoples and local communities, and they are of great importance in ensuring local food security. However, their uses and availability are poorly documented. This study aimed to enumerate WEP diversity and status of WEPs in a part of the Annapurna Conservation Area, Sikles region, where the population is dominated by the Gurung community. Ethnobotanical data were collected using guided field walks, semi-structured interviews, and field observation. The informant consensus method was employed and group discussions were conducted for triangulation of the information. Free listing and identification tests were performed to assess the knowledge of the informants. Both descriptive statistics and quantitative ethnobotanical methods were used for data analysis. A total of 72 wild food species belonging to 46 families and 61 genera were reported from the study area. Asparagaceae and Rosaceae were the dominant families, and herbs were the dominant life form. Fruits (34 species) were the most frequently used plant parts, followed by young shoots (16 species). Most edible plants were consumed in summer and during rainy seasons. While the age and type of informants had an influence on the number of enumerated plants, gender did not. Key informants and people aged 30–45 reported more species than other groups of respondents. Most of the knowledge about the use of WEPs was acquired from parents and relatives. The consumption of these plants was attributed to diversifying cuisine, spicing staple food, nutri-medicinal values, and cultural practices. People perceived the availability of WEPs to be gradually decreasing. However, WEPs are still abundant and diverse in the study area, and knowledge on their use is well-preserved. These resources provide food and nutrients to local people and can also be a source of cash income. Therefore, the documented information on WEPs may serve as baseline data for further studies on nutritional values and provide guidelines for safe collection. The results also revealed that many wild species are under growing pressure from various anthropogenic factors, suggesting effective community engagement is required for their conservation.

Melia azedarach is a common tree used in the traditional medicine of Nepal. In this work, leaves were considered as source of bioactive constituents and composition of methanol extract was evaluated and compared with starting plant material. Flavonoid glycosides and limonoids were identified and quantified by HPLC-DAD-MSn approaches in dried leaves and methanolic extract, while HPLC-APCI-MSn and GC/MS analysis were used to study phytosterol and lipid compositions. β-Sitosterol and rutin were the most abundant constituents. HPLC-APCI-MSn and HPLC-DAD-MSn analysis revealed high levels of phytosterols and flavonoids in methanolic extract accounting 9.6 and 7.5 % on the dried weight, respectively. On the other hand, HPLC/MSn data revealed that limonoid constituents were in minor amount in the extract

The present study had been conducted in Swathi village of Nawalparasi district, which is rich in traditional knowledge. The primary aim of the study was to document medicinal plants used to cure various ailments in Tharu community in Swathi village. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews, household survey, and focus group discussion. Altogether 105 plant species of medicinal values were recorded belonging to 94 genera and 50 families, among which Fabaceae accounts as the most dominant species, i.e., 12 species. Most of the species found in the study area found in wild of which herbs account as the most used lifeform. Leaves were the widely used plant part practiced to treat human ailments. These plant species were evaluated in terms of parts use category, habit category, mode of use category, disease use category, medicinal use pattern and multiple uses, number of use reports, and number of taxa uses to treat different ailments. These medicinal plants were documented with their scientific name, local name, family, and lifeform of plants. Especially local faith healers, Guruwas, and elderly people had rich knowledge about the traditional use of medicinal plants. Women of the study area had rich knowledge on the use of plants for different purposes. Respiratory diseases and fever ailments have the highest ICF (0.80), whereas ureno-genital disorders have the lowest (0.25) ICF. Euphorbia royleana, Cuscuta reflexa, Bryophyllum pinnatum, and Artemisia indica have the highest FL (100% each) being used for respiratory disease and fever, others (jaundice), and gastrointestinal disorders, respectively. Further biological studies should also be conducted on the reported medicinal plant species of the study area to utilize them in drug development. Further studies are needed to evaluate the efficacies and possible side effects of the traditional medicinal plants before they are recommended for their wider use in both the study area and elsewhere in the country.

Phloroglucinols are characteristic constituents of Hypericum japonicum that are claimed to exert several bioactivities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant and anti-viral ones. Phloroglucinols are unstable compounds and their synthesis is challenging, thus, isolation from natural sources is still one of the main strategies for obtaining these constituents in purified form. Assessing the presence of phloroglucinols in plant materials can be of interest for compound isolation, and LC-MS approaches afford sensitivity and specificity in this regard. In this work, we combined data from quadrupole-time of flight (QTOF) and ion trap (IT) mass spectrometers in order to assess the presence of the phloroglucinols characteristic of H. japonicum and to elucidate their MS fragmentation pathways. The identified compounds present similar structures bearing the 1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene core with different substitutions, which, in constituents at higher MW, is linked to 3&prime, 3&prime, dimethyl-6&prime, oxo-phlorisobutyrophenone by a methylene bridge. Differences in MS2 spectra of the considered phloroglucinols are useful for compound identification and differentiation, and to perform dereplication studies. Overall, the proposed approach could be useful for the analysis of phloroglucinols in H. japonicum and other plant species.

Girardinia diversifolia, also known as Himalayan nettle, is a perennial herb used in Nepal to make fiber as well as in traditional medicine for the treatment of several diseases. To date, phytochemical studies and biological assays on this plant are scarce. Thus, in the present work, the G. diversifolia extracts have been evaluated for their potential pharmaceutical, cosmetic and nutraceutical uses. For this purpose, detailed phytochemical analyses were performed, evidencing the presence of phytosterols, fatty acids, carotenoids, polyphenols and saponins. The most abundant secondary metabolites were &beta, and &gamma, sitosterol (11 and 9% dw, respectively), and trans syringin (0.5 mg/g) was the most abundant phenolic. Fatty acids with an abundant portion of unsaturated derivatives (linoleic and linolenic acid at 22.0 and 9.7 mg/g respectively), vitamin C (2.9 mg/g) and vitamin B2 (0.12 mg/g) were also present. The antioxidant activity was moderate while a significant ability to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrilcholinesterase (BuChE), tyrosinase, &alpha, amylase and &alpha, glucosidase was observed. A cytotoxic effect was observed on human ovarian, pancreatic and hepatic cancer cell lines. The effect in hepatocarcinoma cells was associated to a downregulation of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), a pivotal regulator of cellular cholesterol homeostasis. These data show the potential usefulness of this species for possible applications in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmetics.

Girardinia diversifolia, also known as Himalayan nettle, is a perennial herb used in Nepal to make fiber as well as in traditional medicine for the treatment of several diseases. To date, phytochemical studies and biological assays on this plant are scarce. Thus, in the present work, the G. diversifolia extracts have been evaluated for their potential pharmaceutical, cosmetic and nutraceutical uses. For this purpose, detailed phytochemical analyses were performed, evidencing the presence of phytosterols, fatty acids, carotenoids, polyphenols and saponins. The most abundant secondary metabolites were β- and γ-sitosterol (11 and 9% dw, respectively), and trans syringin (0.5 mg/g) was the most abundant phenolic. Fatty acids with an abundant portion of unsaturated derivatives (linoleic and linolenic acid at 22.0 and 9.7 mg/g respectively), vitamin C (2.9 mg/g) and vitamin B2 (0.12 mg/g) were also present. The antioxidant activity was moderate while a significant ability to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrilcholinesterase (BuChE), tyrosinase, α-amylase and α-glucosidase was observed. A cytotoxic effect was observed on human ovarian, pancreatic and hepatic cancer cell lines. The effect in hepatocarcinoma cells was associated to a downregulation of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), a pivotal regulator of cellular cholesterol homeostasis. These data show the potential usefulness of this species for possible applications in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmetics.

The common method of propagation is through seeds but seed germination in Zanthoxylum armatum is very low due to the presence of hard seed coat, which might be a great hurdle for large scale production of plantlets. So an attempt was made in this study to see the effect of different growth hormones, their concentrations and different rooting media on the rooting and sprouting of Z. armatum. The stem cuttings of Z. armatum were treated with two types of auxins namely Indole-3-Butyric Acid (IBA) and Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) at different concentrations (2000 ppm, 3000 ppm and 5000 ppm), while the untreated cuttings were used as control. The cuttings were planted in three different rooting media: sand, neopeat and mix (containing a mixture of sand, soil and vermin-compost). The completely randomized design was used for the experiment. The total number of stem cuttings of Z. armatum used in the experiment was 1080 for 18 treatments in three replicates (20 cuttings per treatment x 18 treatments x 3 replicates). The experiment was set up in controlled greenhouse conditions at Dabur Nepal Private Limited Nursery, Banepa, Kavre District. The parameters evaluated were root length, shoot length and number of roots per cutting. The collected data were analyzed statistically using R-program with Agricola. Least significant difference (LSD) and Duncan multiple Range Test (DMRT), as mean separation technique was applied to identify the most efficient treatment in the rooting and shooting behavior of Z. armatum (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). Hormone concentration and growth media significantly affected the rooting and shooting ability of Z. armatum stem cuttings. IBA was found to be more effective than NAA. Neopeat medium was better than sand and mix media. The highest number of roots (6.5) and root length (11.6 cm) were recorded under IBA 5000 ppm in neopeat medium.

Ipomoea is a large and complex genus, which comprises the largest number of species within the family Convolvulaceae. Globally, the genus consists of about 600 species of vines and shrubs, which are widely distributed throughout the tropics and the subtropics. In Nepal, the genus comprises 15 species, which are distributed throughout the tropical, subtropical and temperate region of the country. Besides few enumerations and floristic surveys, no comprehensive anatomy and pollen characters of 16 species of Ipomoea occurring in Nepal to evaluate the qualitative and quantitative differences in these characters. We found that the all species of Ipomoea have paracytic type stomata. However, there is considerable variation in the size and frequency of the stomata. The size and shape of the epidermal cells also varies from species to species. Ipomoea nil has the highest stomatal frequency, while I. purpurea has the lowest frequency. All species of Ipomoea have globose, isopolar, echinate, pentoporate and radially symmetrical pollen grains. I. quamoclit has the largest pollen, while I. aquatica has the smallest pollen. The anatomy of stem shows no distinct structural differences among species. Although no qualitative differences in the studied characters are found among species, there is considerable variation in the quantitative characters, such as the size of stomata, frequency of stomata and pollen size. These characters could have important taxonomic and ecological implications and therefore, are as valuable as the morphological characters.

The pteridophytes comprising ferns and fern allies constitute an important part in Nepalese flora. Pteridophyte flora of the Himalayan region is considered to be the basic requirements for the knowledge of pteridology. This paper aims to provide the overview of fern and fern allies present in the Nubri valley and its adjoining areas of Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA), Central Nepal. A total of 105 species belonging to 45 genera were recorded, with Dryopteris as the largest genera including twelve species followed by Athyrium, Pteris and Polystichum. With regard to habitats, most of the species were terrestrials followed by lithophytes and epiphytes.

Tectaria coadunata, an ethnomedicinal fern used in Nepal to treat a large number of diseases, has been poorly studied with regard to its phytochemical composition and possible bioactivity. This study was performed with the aim of supporting traditional medicine as a new source of bioactive constituents. Phytochemical compositions of methanol extracts were determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), liquid chromatography&ndash, diode array detector&ndash, mass spectrophotometry (LC-DAD-MS), and liquid chromatography&ndash, fluorescence&ndash, mass spectrometry. Quali-quantitative data revealed large amount of procyanidins, mainly of the A-type, as well as eriodictyol-7-O-glucuronide and luteolin-7-O-glucoronide as main constituents. The antioxidant, cytotoxic, and inhibitory activity of five enzymes that are implicated in human diseases was evaluated for the extract and fractions. High free-radical scavenging activity in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2&prime, azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) assays and inhibitory activities against cholinesterases and tyrosinase were observed. Furthermore, a moderate cytotoxic effect was observed on the 2008 and BxPC3 cell lines. Overall results showed potential usefulness of this fern as a source of phytochemicals for pharmaceutical uses.

Tectaria coadunata, an ethnomedicinal fern used in Nepal to treat a large number of diseases, has been poorly studied with regard to its phytochemical composition and possible bioactivity. This study was performed with the aim of supporting traditional medicine as a new source of bioactive constituents. Phytochemical compositions of methanol extracts were determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), liquid chromatography–diode array detector–mass spectrophotometry (LC-DAD-MS), and liquid chromatography–fluorescence–mass spectrometry. Quali-quantitative data revealed large amount of procyanidins, mainly of the A-type, as well as eriodictyol-7-O-glucuronide and luteolin-7-O-glucoronide as main constituents. The antioxidant, cytotoxic, and inhibitory activity of five enzymes that are implicated in human diseases was evaluated for the extract and fractions. High free-radical scavenging activity in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) assays and inhibitory activities against cholinesterases and tyrosinase were observed. Furthermore, a moderate cytotoxic effect was observed on the 2008 and BxPC3 cell lines. Overall results showed potential usefulness of this fern as a source of phytochemicals for pharmaceutical uses.

Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murray is traditionally used in Nepal to treat several diseases, among whom inflammation and acute pain. Although several secondary metabolites from the same Hypericum species have been already characterized and considered for their pharmacological use, an exhaustive phytochemical characterization of H. japonicum from Nepal is lacking, as well as the assessment of its potential pharmacological properties. Hence, the aims of this study were the characterization of a methanolic extract of H. japonicum (HJME) collected from the Northern region of Nepal by LC-MS

The different ethnic groups dwelling in different phytogeographic belts of Nepal have their own traditional system of knowledge on application of plant resources for health care. The traditional knowledge of using plants is passed on from generation to generation as folklore. Rasuwa district is rich in variety of flora especially medicinal plants and ethnic people (mainly Tamang) are familiar with medicinal resources and possess rich ethno-pharmacological knowledge. These resources provide huge opportunities for community development and livelihood improvement. This paper will present the documentation of medicinal plant used for gastrointestinal disorders in Chilime, Gatlang and Thuman Village Development Committees in Rasuwa district, north-central Nepal.Botanica Orientalis – Journal of Plant Science (2016) 10: 19–23

The knowledge of lichen in Nepal was for the fi rst type introduced by Wallich’s collection done during 1820-21. The collection was mainly done from the eastern and central regions of the country. Lichens are found across all climatic regions of Nepal. They are characterized by the form in which they grow as they can grow on almost any substrate. They are usually identifi ed by its morphological characters, anatomy and colour test in order to separate genera as well as species. Now apothecial ontogeny and structural character is taken to recognise a family, genera and species. Altogether 31 species of different apothecial foliose and fruticose lichens were collected. Among them, 12 species of Parmelia were collected belonging to the family Parmeliaceace. This paper gives the difference of apothecial anatomy of fi ve species of the genus Parmelia collected from Namobudha, Kavrepalanchok district of central Nepal, which has helped in the identifi cation of the species.J. Nat. Hist. Mus. Vol. 26, 2012: 146-154

In Nepal Begonia L. is represented by 22 species of which ten species are reported in having ethnobotanical value. The 22 Begonia species including the seven endemic species largely belong to 2 sections, Begonia sect. Diploclinium and Begonia sect. Platycentrum . Most Begonia species occur in eastern and central region, and few species in western region. In this paper, ten species of Begonia mostly used as food, ornamental purpose and for medicine in most parts of Nepal is described. Except for Begonia picta, the ethnobotanical uses of other Nepalese Begonia species have not been reported in any previous literature from Nepal. J. Nat. Hist. Mus. Vol. 27, 2013: 25-34

The present study investigates the associate enterprises involving bamboobased weaving and handicraft making at Badikhel Village Development Commitee, Lalitpur District, Central Nepal. It aims to assess the socio-economic importance of bamboo craft making on Pahari community at Badikhel. Forty households were randomly selected for questionnaire survey from the areas with higher density of bamboo entrepreneurship practiced. Perceived stakeholders were interviewed to examine their roles and to find out the contribution of bamboo enterprises to household income. Group discussions on issues of bamboo cultivation and management were conducted following RRA and PRA techniques. It was found that Badikhel impregnates four species of bamboo belonging to two genera viz. Bambusa and Drepanostachyum and are important and traditional source of livelihood for the Paharis, one of the ethnic groups in the study area. An average bamboo handicraft maker obtained NRs. 1000 to NRs. 5000 per month from the cash sales of assorted handicrafts. However, no significant bamboo management practices were carried out by the entrepreneurs. Three out of four community managed forests in the study area planted only Bambusa nepalensis as per local demand. Since stakeholders’ involvement in actual promotion of bamboo handicraft industry and bamboo management is meager there is an urgent need for the formation of a larger association of bamboo users for the growth and development of the bamboo entrepreneurship in the area. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/banko.v22i2.9195 Banko Janakari : A Journal of Forestry Information for Nepal Vol. 22, No. 2, 2012 November Page: 11-18 Uploaded date: 12/1/2013

The pollen morphology of 28 Begonia species of Nepal has been examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Comparative pollen analysis was made based on size, shape in polar and equatorial views, P/E ratio, aperture, and exine ornamentation. In this study, four types of pollen ornamentation morphology have been identified. Among Nepalese Begonia , B. roxburghii (section Sphenanthera ) has the smallest pollen (11.2- 12.8 × 6.4-7.0 μm) and B. flagellaris (section Diploclinium ) has the largest pollen (24.3- 30.6 × 11.4-12.0 μm). Presence of margo in the pollen ornamentation is a distinguishing character that separates Begonia section Platycentrum from all other sections of Nepalese Begonia . DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjpt.v19i2.13134 Bangladesh J. Plant Taxon. 19 (2): 191-200, 2012 (December)

Aim The complex palaeogeography of the Malesian archipelago, characterized by the evolution of an ever-changing mosaic of terrestrial and marine areas throughout the Cenozoic, provides the geographic backdrop for the remarkable diversification of Malesian Begonia (> 450 species). This study aimed to investigate the origin of Malesian Begonia, the directionality of dispersal events within the Malesian archipelago and the impact of ancient water gaps on colonization patterns, and to identify drivers of diversification. Location Asia, Southeast Asia, Malesia. Methods Plastid DNA sequence data of representatives of all families of the Cucurbitales and Fagales (matK, rbcL, trnL intron, trnL–F spacer, 4076 aligned positions, 92 taxa) and a sample of all major Asian Begonia sections (ndhA intron, ndhF–rpl32 spacer, rpl32–trnL spacer, 4059 aligned positions, 112 taxa) were analysed under an uncorrelated-rates relaxed molecular clock model to estimate the age of the Begonia crown group divergence and divergence ages within Asian Begonia. Ancestral areas were reconstructed using a likelihood approach implementing a dispersal–extinction–cladogenesis model, and with a Bayesian approach to dispersal–vicariance analysis. Results The results indicated an initial diversification of Asian Begonia in continental Asia in the Miocene, and subsequent colonization of Malesia by multiple lineages. There was support for at least six independent dispersal events from continental Asia and western Malesia to Wallacea dating from the late Miocene to the Pleistocene. Begonia section Petermannia (> 270 species) originated in Western Malesia, and subsequently dispersed to Wallacea, New Guinea and the Philippines. Lineages within this section diversified rapidly since the Pliocene, coinciding with rapid orogenesis on Sulawesi and New Guinea. Main conclusions The predominant trend of Begonia dispersals between continental Asia and Malesia, and also within Malesia, has been from west to east. The water bodies separating the Sunda Shelf region from Wallacea have been porous barriers to dispersal in Begonia following the emergence of substantial land in eastern Malesia from the late Miocene onwards. We hypothesize two major drivers of the diversification of Malesian Begonia: (1) the formation of topographical heterogeneity and the promotion of microallopatry by orogenesis in the Pliocene and Pleistocene; and (2) cyclic vicariance by frequent habitat fragmentations and amalgamations due to climate and sea-level fluctuations during the Pleistocene.

Maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses of non-coding plastid DNA sequence data based on a broad sampling of all major Asian Begonia sections (ndhA intron, ndhF-rpl32 spacer, rpl32-trnL spacer, 3977 aligned characters, 84 species) were used to reconstruct the phylogeny of Asian Begonia and to test the monophyly of major Asian Begonia sections. Ovary and fruit characters which are crucial in current sectional circumscriptions were mapped on the phylogeny to assess their utility in infrageneric classifications. The results indicate that the strong systematic emphasis placed on single, homoplasious characters such as undivided placenta lamellae (section Reichenheimia) and fleshy pericarps (section Sphenanthera), and the recognition of sections primarily based on a suite of plesiomorphic characters including three-locular ovaries with axillary, bilamellate placentae and dry, dehiscent pericarps (section Diploclinium), has resulted in the circumscription of several polyphyletic sections. Moreover, sections Platycentrum and Petermannia were recovered as paraphyletic. Because of the homoplasy of systematically important characters, current classifications have a certain diagnostic, but only poor predictive value. The presented phylogeny provides for the first time a reasonably resolved and supported phylogenetic framework for Asian Begonia which has the power to inform future taxonomic, biogeographic and evolutionary studies.

This article scopes the status and potential of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in community forests and the national forest of Bardiya district in western Nepal. The human ecological approach, participatory rural appraisal, focus group discussions and interviews were used to gather data and information for analysis. The results of the data analysis indicate that the area harbours a high diversity of potential NTFPs. Altogether, 101 species and their traditional uses were recorded. The NTFP species are clustered into first, second, third and fourth categories on the basis of their market value and resource availability. Despite a gradual but systematic socio-cultural transformation of the local communities, they still possess ample knowledge of plants and their uses. It is observed that the proper management of the NTFPs could play a vital role in the improvement of people's livelihood on a sustainable basis.

Nepal is rich in ethnobotanical information and there are many plants of ethnobotanical values used by various ethnic community and many studies have been carried out in this aspect. The present study was carried out on the western part of Nepal, in Benimanipur VDC, Nawalparasi district focusing mainly on the plants used in 'Marcha' preparation. Data were collected from two field visits from May-June and September 2006. A total of 20 plant species were found as 'Marcha' preparing plants in Tharu community, which were collected and preserved. The traditional technique of 'Marcha' preparation along with different species of plants used by the Tharu community was documented. The different sample of 'Marcha' with different combination of plants was also documented. This paper does highlight the commonly used plants for 'Marcha' preparation by Tharu community. Keywords: Asparagus racemosus ; Elephantopus scaber ; Piper longum ; Fermentation starter; Beverages. Journal of Natural History Museum Vol. 24, 2009 Page: 137-145

Background Wild edible plants (WEP) provide staple and supplement foods, as well as cash income to local communities, thus favouring food security. However, WEP are largely ignored in land use planning and implementation, economic development, and biodiversity conservation. Moreover, WEP-related traditional knowledge is rapidly eroding. Therefore, we designed this study to fulfill a part of the knowledge gap by providing data on diversity, traditional knowledge, economic potential, and conservation value of WEP from Nepal. Methods The information was collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Percentage of general utility of the plants among the study communities was evaluated using the Chi-square (χ2) test of homogeneity. High priority species were identified after consultation with the local stakeholders followed by scoring based on defined criteria. Pairwise ranking was used to assess ethnoecological knowledge to identify the threats to WEP. Results We documented 81 species belonging to Angiosperms (74), Pteridophytes (5), and Fungi (2). Most of the species were used as fruits (44 species) followed by vegetables (36). Almost half of the species (47%) were also used for purposes other than food. From the species with market value (37% of the total), 10 were identified as high priority species. Pairwise ranking revealed that WEP are threatened mostly by habitat destruction, land-use change and over-harvesting. Some of these plants are crop wild relatives and could thus be used for crop improvement. Interestingly, our study also revealed that young people who spend most of the time in the forest as herdsmen are particularly knowledgeable of wild fruit plants. Conclusion We provide empirical evidence from a relatively large area of Nepal about diversity and status of WEP, as well as methodological insights about the proper knowledge holders to consult. Regarding the unique and important knowledge they have on WEP, young people should be included when recruiting participants to ethnobotanical studies or to any type of consultation about WEP. The habit of using wild edible plants is still alive and is a traditional culinary practice that demonstrates rich traditional knowledge of local people. WEP were found to be important for livelihood as well as showing great potential for crop improvement. Priority species should be promoted for income generation activities through sustainable collection and trade. Communities should engage in minimizing the threats to these valuable resources.

The 29 Nepalese species of the pantropical genus Begonia largely belong to 2 sections, Begonia sect. Diploclinium and Begonia sect. Platycentrum . The former comprises tuberous species which occur along the Himalayan range. They die back during the dry season and their flowering time is strongly constrained by the onset of the monsoon. The latter comprises evergreen rhizomatous species some of which extend their distribution into more aseasonal areas such as Indo-China. They have a more extended flowering period which is not strictly constrained by the monsoon. There is a gradient of Begonia species richness increasing from west to east across Nepal, in relation to the increased intensity of the monsoon in the east. Key words: Distribution modelling; geophytes; monsoon; phenology; species richness. DOI: 10.3126/botor.v7i0.4386 Botanica Orientalis - Journal of Plant Science (2010) 7: 73-78