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Quality is the most important and necessary attribute for pharmaceutical product development, and it has become the focus of regulatory bodies in order to approve safe, efficacious, stable, patient-compliance, and cost-effective drug delivery systems. QbD-based formulation development is discovered to be an immerging technique in this context. FbD is a formulation development concept that aims to create more effective, safe, robust, cost-effective, and patient-compliant drug delivery systems. This chapter will provide an overview of Formulation by Design (FbD), different terminologies, design of experiment (DoE) and quality by design (QbD), types of experimental design, QbD applications, and FbD methodology along with benefits.

Fast weathering of parent materials and rapid mineralization of organic matter because of prevalent climatic conditions, and subsequent development of acidity and loss/exhaustion of nutrient elements due to intensive agricultural practices have resulted in the degradation of soil fertility and productivity in the vast tropical areas of the world. There is an urgent need for rejuvenation of weathered tropical soils to improve crop productivity and sustainability. For this purpose, biochar has been found to be more effective than other organic soil amendments due to biochar's stability in soil, and thus can extend the benefits over long duration. This review synthesizes information concerning the present status of biochar application in highly weathered tropical soils highlighting promising application strategies for improving resource use efficiency in terms of economic feasibility. In this respect, biochar has been found to improve crop productivity and soil quality consistently through liming and fertilization effects in low pH and infertile soils under low-input conditions typical of weathered tropical soils. This paper identifies several advance strategies that can maximize the effectiveness of biochar application in weathered tropical soils. However, strategies for the reduction of costs of biochar production and application to increase the material's use efficiency need future development. At the same time, policy decision by linking economic benefits with social and environmental issues is necessary for successful implementation of biochar technology in weathered tropical soils. This review recommends that advanced biochar strategies hold potential for sustaining soil quality and agricultural productivity in tropical soils. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Soil co-contamination of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and phthalate esters has become prominent due to its potential adverse effect on human food supply. There is limited information on using wood- and animal-derived biochars for the remediation of co-contaminated soils. Therefore, a pot experiment was conducted using Brassica chinensis L. as a bio-indicator plant to investigate the effect of P. orientalis biochar and pig biochar application on the bioavailability of cadmium (Cd) and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and on plant physiological parameters (malondialdehyde, proline and soluble sugars). Biochar materials were applied to two soils containing low (LOC) and high (HOC) organic carbon content at rates of 0, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4%. To better understand the influence of biochar, physicochemical properties and X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS), Fourier transform-infrared spectrometry (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were characterized. Biochar application increased soil pH, organic carbon content, and available phosphorus content. Increasing biochar application rates decreased DTPA-extractable Cd and extractable DEHP concentrations in both soils. Biochar application reduced the plant uptake of both Cd and DEHP from co-contaminated soils; the maximum reduction of Cd (92.7%) and DEHP (52.0%) was observed in 2% pig biochar-treated LOC soil. The responses of plant physiological parameters to increased biochar applications indicated that less Cd and DEHP were taken up by plants. Pig biochar was more effective (P < 0.05) at reducing the bioavailability of Cd and DEHP in both soils than P. orientalis biochar; therefore, pig biochar had greater potential for improving the quality of the crop. However, the highest application rate (4%) of pig biochar restricted plant seed germination. Key factors influencing the bioavailability of Cd and DEHP in soils were soil organic carbon content, biochar properties (such as surface alkalinity, available phosphorus content and ash content) and biochar application rates. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Refereed/Peer-reviewed The beneficial role of biochar on improvement of soil quality, C sequestration, and enhancing crop yield is widely reported. As such there is not much consolidated information available linking biochar modulated soil condition improvement and soil nutrient availability on crop yields. The present review paper addresses the above issues by compilation of world literature on biochar and a new dimension is introduced in this review by performing a meta-analysis of published data by using multivariate statistical analysis. Hence this review is a new in its kind and is useful to the broad spectrum of readers. Generally, alkalinity in biochar increases with increase in pyrolysis temperature and majority of the biochar is alkaline in nature except a few which are acidic. The N content in many biochar was reported to be more than 4% as well as less than 0.5%. Poultry litter biochar is a rich source of P (3.12%) and K (7.40%), while paper mill sludge biochar is higher in Ca content (31.1%) and swine solids biochar in Zn (49810 mg kg(-1)), and Fe (74800 mg kg(-1)) contents. The effect of biochar on enhancing soil pH was higher in Alfisol, Ferrosol and Acrisol. Soil application of biochar could on an average increase (78%), decrease (16%), or show no effect on crop yields under different soil types. Biochar produced at a lower pyrolysis temperature could deliver greater soil nutrient availabilities than that prepared at higher temperature. Principal component analysis (PCA) of available data shows an inverse relationship between [pyrolysis temperature and soil pH], and [biochar application rate and soil cation exchange capacity]. The PCA also suggests that the original soil properties and application rate strongly control crop yield stimulations via biochar amendments. Finally, biochar application shows net soil C gains while also serving for increased plant biomass production that strongly recommends biochar as a useful soil amendment. Therefore, the application of biochar to soils emerges as a 'win-win strategy' for sustainable waste management, climate change mitigation and food security.

The low aqueous solubility and poor stability of drugs under physiological conditions are significant challenges in successful formulation development. Nano-drug delivery systems show great potential to overcome these existing challenges and to eventually enhance the bioavailability of their cargos. Additionally, these nanomedicines offer site-specific and controlled delivery of therapeutic agents. The success of nanotechnology is evident by the number of outstanding nanomedicines currently on the market or in the different phases of clinical trials. Cellulose and its derivatives have gained increasing attention in designing nanomedicines due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, nontoxicity, and low-cost production from renewable resources. It has several functional groups that can be easily modified to achieve target specificity, pH sensitivity, and sustained action, making them suitable for biomedical applications, particularly in drug delivery. In this book chapter, the source, general physicochemical properties, different structural derivatives of cellulose, and the applications of its nanomaterials in drug delivery are discussed.

Carcinoma in the breast is a very common malignancies in women and very unusual in male although they are born with same breast cells and tissues. It starts growing in the cells of the acini, lacteferous duct, and lobules of the breast. The recent therapy available for the breast cancer treatment limits their use due to the resistance development toward a particular drug. Hence, an urge for overcoming such types of barriers, novel approaches is acquired in which nanocarrier is very important. The exterior of the nanosystems can be modified in such a way that help for drug targeting and controlled drug release over prolonged time period. Furthermore, multifunctional nanosystems for the treatment of drug-resistant breast cancer show possibility of inhibition of multidrug resistance, produce synergy among the chemotherapeutic agents without causing noticeable cytotoxicity with significant reduction in breast tumor.

Mutagenicity formation by low pressure (LP)-UV/H2O2 treatment of nitrate-rich water containing natural organic matter (NOM) was investigated. Laboratory-grade water samples spiked with either Pony Lake NOM or Suwannee River NOM (4 mg L−1 in both cases) and nitrate (50 mg L−1) were irradiated with UV fluences of 0, 1500 and 2000 mJ cm−2 and a H2O2 dose of 15 mg L−1 and tested for mutagenicity with the Ames II assay. LP-UV photolysis of nitrate in the presence of Pony Lake NOM caused a significant increase in the Ames II assay response and low concentrations of nitrite (0.08–0.09 mg NO2− L−1) and nitrophenols (0.014–0.046 μg L−1) were detected. Suwannee River NOM produced the same nitrite levels but no significant responses in the Ames II assay were observed. Additionally, samples collected from a drinking water treatment plant in the UK using LP-UV/H2O2 treatment were analysed with the Ames II assay. LC-OCD fractionation and SUVA measurements were performed to observe any changes in the properties of NOM. Significant differences in the mutagenicity response were observed between the treatment steps as well as between the two sampling periods. However, with respect to standard thresholds, none of the samples were found to be mutagenic towards the Salmonella typhimurium strain TA98 used.

Biochar is a carbon-rich by-product of the thermal conversion of organic feedstocks and is primarily used as a soil amendment. Identification and quantification of biochar properties are important to ensure optimal outcomes for agricultural or environmental applications. Advanced spectroscopic techniques have recently been adopted in biochar characterization. However, biochar characterization approaches rely entirely on the user's choice and accessibility to the new technology. The selection of proper methods is vital to accurately and consistently assess biochar properties. This review critically evaluates current biochar characterization methods of proximate, ultimate, physicochemical, surface and structural analyses, and important biochar properties for various applications. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Modern agriculture fundamentally relies on an extensive use of agrochemicals to enhance crop productivity by controlling harmful pests, pathogens, and undesirable weeds. However, currently, we have reached a stage where several threats are emerging on food security, human and environmental health, maintenance of ecological balance, and conservation of the soil biodiversity. Long-term unbalanced use of agrochemicals may lead to community shift of beneficial microorganisms with dangerous consequences such as the development of antimicrobial resistance. Agrochemicals usage in farming systems may adversely influence soil microorganisms that are mainly involved in nutrient cycling processes, such as nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and other essential nutrient biotransformation. The recent report established that some agrochemicals reduce biochemical reaction and activities of soil enzymes that are key indicators of soil microbiological health. This chapter focuses on the effects of applied agropesticides on soil microbiological and biochemical health attributes under different cropping systems.

Purpose: The use of excessive nitrogen (N) fertilizers usually causes soil N leaching, eutrophication, and water pollution.Nevertheless, biochars may play an important role in decreasing N losses from soil to waterways. The objectives of this study were to explore the effect of contrasting biochars on the leaching of key inorganic N species during the N transformation processes in a biochar-amended soil. Materials and methods: A column leaching experiment was carried out through a soil treated with 2% (w/w) application rate of dead pig-derived biochar (DPB), ultrasonic-modified dead pig-derived biochar (UPB), or Platanus orientalis branch-derived biochar (POB). The DPB contained 5% N, which was much greater than that in the POB (1% N). The amount of ammonium and nitrate N (NH₄+-N and NO₃⁻-N) in the leachate samples from the soil treated with different biochars were collected and analyzed periodically. Results and discussion: After 20 weeks of incubation, the cumulative NH₄+-N leaching loss from the control treatment was 1.87,2.00, and 2.07 times greater than that from the POB-, DPB-, and UPB-treated soils (P < 0.05). Biochar application reduced NH₄+-N leaching from the soil, likely because of NH₄+ ion retention and adsorption on biochar surface areas and pore spaces. The cumulativeNO₃⁻-N in the leachate from the biochar-amended soil was significantly lower than that of the untreated control, in the order of POB< UPB = DPB < untreated control.With the application of DPB and UPB, the cumulative inorganic N (especially NO₃⁻-N) leaching loss was significantly higher by up to 50%, compared with the POB treatment (P < 0.05). The suppression of nitrate leaching may bedue to microbial N immobilization, resulting from the addition of different biochars. It is apparent that the ultrasonic modification process of DPB caused no further inhibition of inorganic N leaching from the soil via incorporating the UPB. Conclusions: Despite the relatively high N concentration in the DPB, 2% of DPB dosage reduced inorganic N leaching from the amended soil. Therefore, regardless of the biochar N concentrations, biochars could be used to improve N fertilizer use efficiency by reducing N leaching loss from soils. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

This chapter provides an overview of particulate plastics as a source and sink for heavy metal(loid)s in the environment. Particulate plastics in the terrestrial and aquatic environments are a group of synthetic polymer fragments or beads ranging in diameter from roughly 5 mm down to the nano-meter scale. The accumulated particulate plastics in soil can be transported to the aquatic environment through soil erosion, which is one of the main processes that allows the transport of particulate plastics from the terrestrial to the aquatic ecosystem. Heavy metal(loid)s are elements that have properties in between metals and non-metals. Particulate plastics impact the dynamics of metal(loid)s in terrestrial and aquatic environments through both acting as a source and sink for metal(loid)s. In environmental toxicology, the “source” can be defined where pollution is emitted to the environment, or where the pollution originates. Particulate plastics act as a “source” when they release a pollutant into the environment.

Modern agricultural practices use a huge amount of agro-pesticides to control insect pests, pathogens, and unwanted weeds. Many of such agrochemicals persist in the soil and plant systems for long time and pose a risk of migration into the drinking water sources and food chain. Often these agrochemicals occur as a mixture of multiple compounds in the soil due to their simultaneous and/or subsequent seasonal applications. The mobility, fate, and transformation of agrochemicals depend largely on soil types, especially the type and content of soil clays, organic matter content, pH, and microbial activity. The sorption–desorption behaviors of agrochemicals on soil clays, which are the most reactive particle components of soils, may alter significantly when these compounds appear as a mixture. This chapter aims to discuss various soil attributes that control the sorption–desorption of agrochemical contaminants in soils under different soil–plant systems.

This study investigated the influence of chemical remediation agents (Bc, M, HA, and Bc + HA) on the growth of the halophyte Lycium ruthenicum and the mechanism of restoration of soil salinization using joint halophyte and chemical remediation in arid fields. The results showed that aboveground organ biomass of L. ruthenicum increased significantly with the chemical remediation agents analyze but the effects on the root system were different. Among the root traits, dry weight of the taproot of L. ruthenicum increased significantly (p < 0.05) by 60.57% with HA; however, the lateral roots were inhibited. With the addition of biochar, the content of sodium ions in roots increased significantly. Further analysis showed that endogenous manganese (Mn) promoted K+ absorption concentration increase from 22.09 to 38.28 g/kg. Moreover, Joint L. ruthenicum and chemical remediation with Bc, HA, M and Bc + HA reduced Na+ to 5854.76, 9396.19, 6530.95 and 11164.29 g/(kg DW⋅m2·a), respectively. Tests revealed that for L. ruthenicum, the aboveground biomass and root morphological plasticity, as well as the synergistic effect of K+ on Na+ transport capacity influenced by endogenous Mn in leaves, were the primary causes of the efficient improvement of saline-alkali land.

Oral controlled release formulations have been at the center of pharmaceutical research over several decades due to their distinct advantages compared to conventional dosage forms where the entire drug payload is released and absorbed rapidly following administration. Natural polysaccharides are extensively being studied as release modifiers in oral controlled release dosage forms because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, good safety profile, low-cost availability, and production from renewable resources. Furthermore, polysaccharides can be easily modified by physical or chemical processes to suit specific needs. This article critically reviews some of the important natural polysaccharides with emphasis on their structure, major sources, properties, and applications in various oral modified release systems. The underlying drug release mechanisms from different dosage forms are also discussed. Finally, we outline the critical limitations and challenges that need to be addressed for promoting extensive applications of natural polysaccharides in commercial controlled-release formulations.

Ammonia (NH3) volatilization is considered as one of the major mechanisms responsible for the loss of nitrogen (N) from soil-plant systems worldwide. This study investigated the effect of biochar amendment to a calcareous soil (pH 7.8) on NH3 volatilization and plant N uptake. In particular, the effect of biochar's feedstock and application rate on both NH3 volatilization and plant growth were quantified using a specially designed closed chamber system. Two well-characterized biochars prepared from poultry manure (PM-BC) and green waste compost (GW-BC) were applied to the soil (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2% w/w equivalent to 0, 7.5, 15, 22 and 30 t ha−1) and wheat (Triticum aestivum, variety: Calingiri) was grown for 30 days. Both PM-BC and GW-BC decreased NH3 volatilization to a similar degree (by 47 and 38%, respectively), in the soil-plant system compared to the unamended control. Higher plant biomass production of up to 70% was obtained in the closed chamber systems with the addition of biochar. The increase in plant biomass was due to the reduction in N loss as NH3 gas, thereby increasing the N supply to the plants. Plant N uptake was improved by as much as 58% with biochar addition when additional NPK nutrients were supplied to the soil. This study demonstrates that the application of biochars can mitigate NH3 emission from calcareous agricultural cropping soil and that the retained N is plant-available and can improve wheat biomass yield Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Chromium (Cr) is one of the common metals present in the soils and may have an extremely deleterious environmental impact depending on its redox state. Among two common forms, trivalent Cr(III) is less toxic than hexavalent Cr(VI) in soils. Carbon (C) based materials including biochar could be used to alleviate Cr toxicity through converting Cr(VI) to Cr(III). Incubation experiments were conducted to examine Cr(VI) reduction in different soils (Soil 1: pH 7.5 and Soil 2: pH 5.5) with three manures from poultry (PM), cow (CM) and sheep (SM), three respective manure-derived biochars (PM biochar (PM-BC), CM biochar (CM-BC) and SM biochar (SM-BC)) and two modified biochars (modified PM-BC (PM-BC-M) and modified SM-BC (SM-BC-M)). Modified biochar was synthesized by incorporating chitosan and zerovalent iron (ZVI) during pyrolysis. Among biochars, highest Cr(VI) reduction was observed with PM-BC application (5%; w/w) (up to 88.12 mg kg−1; 45% reduction) in Soil 2 (pH 5.5). The modified biochars enhanced Cr(VI) reduction by 55% (SM-BC-M) compared to manure (29%, SM) and manure-derived biochars (40% reduction, SM-BC). Among the modified biochars, SM-BC-M showed a higher Cr(VI) reduction rate (55%) than PM-BC-M (48%) in Soil 2. Various oxygen-containing surface functional groups such as phenolic, carboxyl, carbonyl, etc. on biochar surface might act as a proton donor for Cr(VI) reduction and subsequent Cr(III) adsorption. This study underpins the immense potential of modified biochar in remediation of Cr(VI) contaminated soils. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural operations continue to increase. Carbon (C)-enriched char materials like biochar have been described as a mitigation strategy. Utilization of biochar material as a soil amendment has been demonstrated to provide potentially greater soil GHG suppression due to its interactions in the soil system. However, these effects are variable and the duration of the impact remains uncertain. Various (nano)materials can be used to modify chars to obtain surface functionality to mitigate GHG emissions. This review critically focusses on the innovative methodologies for improving char efficiency, underpinning GHG mitigation and C sequestration. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The use of biochar has been suggested as a means of remediating contaminated soil and water. The practical applications of conventional biochar for contaminant immobilization and removal however need further improvements. Hence, recent attention has focused on modification of biochar with novel structures and surface properties in order to improve its remediation efficacy and environmental benefits. Engineered/designer biochars are commonly used terms to indicate application-oriented, outcome-based biochar modification or synthesis. In recent years, biochar modifications involving various methods such as, acid treatment, base treatment, amination, surfactant modification, impregnation of mineral sorbents, steam activation and magnetic modification have been widely studied. This review summarizes and evaluates biochar modification methods, corresponding mechanisms, and their benefits for contaminant management in soil and water. Applicability and performance of modification methods depend on the type of contaminants (i.e., inorganic/organic, anionic/cationic, hydrophilic/hydrophobic, polar/non-polar), environmental conditions, remediation goals, and land use purpose. In general, modification to produce engineered/designer biochar is likely to enhance the sorption capacity of biochar and its potential applications for environmental remediation. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Soil amendments (e.g., hydrochar) have recently gained increasing research interest because of their potential application in agricultural soils to reduce nutrient loss to the environment. In order to improve the surface properties of hydrochar, we herein used the microbial-aging approach to produce microbially-aged hydrochar (M-SHC), which was applied in rice paddy soil columns to investigate nitrogen transformation processes and gaseous nitrogen losses by NH3 volatilization. The aim of this research was mainly to explore and understand the mechanisms by which sawdust hydrochar (SHC), M-SHC, and water-washed hydrochar (W-SHC) influence NH3 volatilization in rice paddy fields. Compared with the control, M-SHC treatment considerably reduced both cumulative NH3 and yield-scale NH3 volatilization by 11.52% and 24.40% ( p 0.05 ), respectively. This reduction could be attributed to a decrease in NH4+–N concentrations and an alteration of floodwater pH, following the application of M-SHC. The results showed that changes in floodwater pH could considerably affect the NH3 volatilization rate. When floodwater was slightly alkaline (pH > 7.25), even a minor alteration of pH following the application of hydrochar could increase NH3 volatilization rapidly. The application of hydrochar substantially inhibited the soil urease activity and increased the soil amoA gene abundance, which, in turn, decreased the floodwater NH4+–N concentrations. These results offer strong theoretical support for the application of hydrochar in agricultural systems to decrease NH3 volatilization in rice paddy fields.

Biochar (BC) potentially accelerates ammonia (NH3) volatilization from rice paddy soils. In this regard, however, application the floating duckweed (FDW) to biochar-amended soil to control the NH3 volatilization is not studied up-to-date. Therefore, the impacts of BC application with and without FDW on the NH3 and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, NUE and rice grain yield were evaluated in a soil columns experiment. We repacked soil columns with Hydragric Anthrosol and Haplic Acrisol treated in triplicates with Urea, Urea + BC and Urea + BC + FDW. Total NH3 losses from Hydragric Anthrosol and Haplic Acrisol were 15.2–33.2 kg N ha−1 and 19.6–39.7 kg N ha−1, respectively. Urea + BC treatment recorded 25.6–43.7% higher (p < 0.05) NH3 losses than Urea treatment, attributing to higher pH value of floodwater. Floating duckweed decreased soil pH and therefore significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the NH3 volatilizations from the two soils by 50.6–54.2% over Urea + BC and by 34.2–38.0% over Urea treatment. Total N2O emissions from Hydragric Anthrosol and Haplic Acrisol were 1.19–3.42 kg N ha−1 and 0.67–2.08 kg N ha−1, respectively. Urea + BC treatment increased N2O emissions by 58.8–68.7% and Urea + BC + FDW treatment further increased N2O emission by 187.4–210.4% over Urea treatment. Higher ammonium content of the topsoil, explained the N2O increases in the Urea + BC and Urea + BC + FDW treatments. Urea + BC slightly reduced the rice grain yield and NUE, while the Urea + BC + FDW promoted both rice yield and NUE. Our data indicate that co-application of FDW along with BC in paddy soil could mitigate the NH3 volatilization and enhance the rice grain yield and NUE. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The presence of emerging contaminants, including pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), pesticides, and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), in water bodies is a serious problem in many countries. However, the environmental fate of emerging contaminants and their behavior is largely unknown. Urban wastewater is a predominant source of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) globally. Conventional wastewater treatment processes are not designed to remove these compounds, and they simultaneously produce a huge amount of contaminated sludge. Advanced wastewater treatment technologies, such as membrane filtration, ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), ozone and catalytic oxidation, and membrane bioreactors (MBRs), could partially remove some CECs, but the high cost is a problem with their application. This chapter discusses the scope of novel materials based on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and technologies in removing CECs from urban wastewater that potentially results in a sustainable sludge management practice in the water supply chain.

Electronic waste (E-waste) has been stated as one of the most rapidly growing waste streams in the world. It consists of a wide range of elements and compounds including both valuable and hazardous materials. E-waste can contaminate the environment and threaten human health through its improper recycling and disposal methods. Moreover, E-waste represents a significant potential source of valuable materials to make the recycling of this waste economically fascinating. This chapter presents an overview of E-waste treatment technologies including sanitary landfill and recycling of precious metals, nonmetal elements, plastics, and glasses. The recycling of E-waste has become a significant issue because of the strange growth in the production of E-waste and increased awareness among people regarding environmental protection. Consequently, the primitive treatment technologies cannot reach the future obligations of industry because of the potential risk of environmental contamination, high cost, and low efficiency. An effective utilization of the reusable resources is therefore a prerequisite for developing new technologies to treat E-waste.

Micronutrient malnutrition or hidden hunger is an alarming public health issue in developing countries, affects more than half of the world’s population, and causes enormous loss in quality and quantity of mankind. Among the malnourished population, vitamin A, iron, zinc, iodine, and selenium deficiency are predominant. Modern plant breeding has been focused primarily toward achieving high agronomic yields rather than nutritional quality, and conventional efforts like supplementation, diet diversification, and industrial fortification cannot mitigate the situation. Biofortification is a practice of nutrient fortification in food plants involving modern breeding, transgenic approaches, improved agronomy, and microbiological interventions toward changing genetic architecture, improving micronutrient uptake, and proper distribution in edible tissues to safe levels, reduction in antinutrients in food staples for promoting bioavailability of nutrients thereby becoming a sustainable and long-term strategy to address negative impacts of vitamin and nutrient deficiencies. Considering the nutritional impact of horticultural crops, biofortification program have been carried out in potato, cassava, sweet potato, beans, cow pea, bananas through the joint effort of national and international organizations. Several conventional and transgenic varieties have been released and disseminated to the farming communities, and additional varieties are in the pipeline. However, the effectiveness of the biofortification program essentially relies on the farmers’ and consumers’ acceptance and future policy interventions. Therefore, strategic research and appropriate policy can lead to biofortification’s grand success in the near future.

© 2017 Elsevier Inc. There is a growing concern about climate change, and soils have attracted significant research attention as a sink for atmospheric CO 2 . Mechanisms of soil organic carbon (SOC) stabilization have received much focus recently due to its relevance in controlling the global C cycle. The purpose of this chapter is to review our existing knowledge of soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics with special reference to the role of clay mineralogy in the retention and stabilization of OC in soil. A good understanding of the stabilization mechanisms of SOM will help in adopting good management practices for SOM storage, improving soil structure and mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. Here we present the SOM dynamics in relation to their sources and sinks, factors affecting SOC sequestration, and various processes involved in SOM stabilization. We critically review the studies examining soil, environmental, and management factors impacting SOM stabilization with a special reference to clay mineralogy. Finally, we present some future research needs in this area.

The search for effective materials for environmental cleanup is a scientific and technological issue of paramount importance. Among various materials, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) possess unique physicochemical, electrical, and mechanical properties that make them suitable for potential applications as environmental adsorbents, sensors, membranes, and catalysts. Depending on the intended application and the chemical nature of the target contaminants, CNTs can be designed through specific functionalization or modification processes. Designer CNTs can remarkably enhance contaminant removal efficiency and facilitate nanomaterial recovery and regeneration. An increasing number of CNT-based materials have been used to treat diverse organic, inorganic, and biological contaminants. These success stories demonstrate their strong potential in practical applications, including wastewater purification and desalination. However, CNT-based technologies have not been broadly accepted for commercial use due to their prohibitive cost and the complex interactions of CNTs with other abiotic and biotic environmental components. This paper presents a critical review of the existing literature on the interaction of various contaminants with CNTs in water and soil environments. The preparation methods of various designer CNTs (surface functionalized and/or modified) and the functional relationships between their physicochemical characteristics and environmental uses are discussed. This review will also help to identify the research gaps that must be addressed for enhancing the commercial acceptance of CNTs in the environmental remediation industry. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Utilization of nanotechnology and nanomaterials is an integral part of modern life. The increased use of nanomaterials in various consumer products, industries, medical instruments, and information technology and energy sectors has created research interest because of their potential toxicity for the environment . Nanomaterials can also be added directly and indirectly to the soil and water treatment plants to reduce pollutant concentrations. Nanoparticles may enter the aquatic system through runoff and industrial effluent discharge, therefore, potentially contaminate both the aquatic and terrestrial systems. Researchers have used laboratory experiments to understand the effect of nanomaterials and their transformation in water and soil environment. The transformation of nanoparticles in the environment involves various physical and chemical processes, and their degradation/transformation products may introduce further toxicity. Various microparticles or host materials can be used to support or coat nanoparticles in order to reduce their toxicity. Microparticles including clay minerals, polymer , carbon -based materials (biochar ) are popular to support nanoparticles due to their large surface area and improved functional characteristics. This chapter aims to give an overview of the risks associated with using nanoparticles , and how to reduce the possible toxicity related to nanoparticles by using microparticle host materials.

Objective of this study was to investigate the mechanisms of 2,4-Dichlorophynoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) sorption on biochar in aqueous solutions. Sorption isotherm, kinetics, and desorption experiments were performed to identify the role of biochars’ feedstock and production conditions on 2,4-D sorption. Biochars were prepared from various green wastes (tea, burcucumber, and hardwood) at two pyrolytic temperatures (400 and 700 °C). The tea waste biochar produced at 700 °C was further activated with steam under a controlled flow. The sorption of 2,4-D was strongly dependent on the biochar properties such as specific surface area, surface functional groups, and microporosity. The steam activated biochar produced from tea waste showed the highest (58.8 mg g−1) 2,4-D sorption capacity, which was attributed to the high specific surface area (576 m2 g−1). The mechanism of 2,4-D removal from aqueous solution by biochar is mainly attributed to the formation of heterogeneous sorption sites due to the steam activation. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Optimal reactive power scheduling is one of the most complex and challenging problems in modern power system operation. This has recently gained intense attention from the scientist and researchers all over the world due to the introduction of liberalization or deregulation of electricity industry where reactive power is being traded as an ancillary service. This paper proposes an improved algorithm for optimal reactive power scheduling (ORPS) problem and a recently introduced simple yet powerful optimization technique called Jaya Algorithm (JA) is utilized for the same. The main advantage of the Jaya Algorithm is that it does not require any problem dependent control parameters. The optimal reactive power scheduling (ORPS) problem is formulated considering minimization of both losses and system cost satisfying several equality and inequality constraints. The algorithm described in this work is implemented on a standard test system for verifying its effectiveness and randomness. A comparison study of the simulation results is also performed with other modern heuristic techniques. The simulation results prove that it can produce acceptable results.

Agricultural practices involving intensive applications of chemical fertilizers can be harmful to the environment. Soil amendments can serve as an alternative source of plant nutrients and simultaneously improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. Many soil amendments are produced from organic and inorganic waste materials. The amendment application practices therefore not only support the agricultural productivity but also facilitate an environmental friendly disposal and recycling of the wastes. This also helps the farmers to reduce their cost of production. Most of the soil amendments supply nutrients to plants over a longer period of time in a slow release process. However, best management practices should be adapted in order to harness the optimum benefits of soil amendments in agricultural and forestry production systems. This chapter aims to present an overview of various soil amendments in relation to their already existing and/or potential applications for improving the productivity and health of soils.

Knowledge on the fate and transport of heavy metals is essential for predicting the environmental impact of metal contamination on agricultural soils. This chapter presents an overview of various factors that are involved in controlling the retention and mobility of heavy metals in soils with a special reference to soil mineralogy. The bioavailability of most elements, in particular heavy metals, in soils is governed by adsorption-desorption, complexation, precipitation and ion-exchange processes. The most important surfaces involved in metal adsorption in soils are active inorganic colloids such as clay minerals, oxides and hydroxides of metals, metal carbonates and phosphates and organic colloids. In addition to soil mineralogy, other important parameters controlling heavy metal retention and their distribution are soil texture, structure, pH, redox condition, cation and anion concentration, ionic strength, organic matter, microbial and root activity and climatic conditions. However, the ultimate fate of elements depends on a combination of several factors that are working together in the soil system. Finally, several remediation strategies have also been highlighted based on the fundamental principles of metal immobilization on mineral containing soil amendments.

Homopolymeric and interpenetrating network (IPN) hydrogel beads of ibuprofen (IBP), a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, were prepared using carboxymethyl xanthan and sodium alginate as polymers and AlCl3 as a cross-linking agent. Formation of IPN structure was examined using FTIR analysis. The effect of composition of the hydrogel beads and the amount drug load on the release of IBP was studied in acidic and phosphate buffer (PB) solution of pH 6.8. In accordance with the swelling behavior of the beads, drug release from the IPN beads in acidic solution was found to be confined within those from homopolymeric beads. On the other hand, drug release from IPN beads in PB solution was found to be less than those from the homopolymeric beads although the swelling of the beads followed the same trend as in an acidic solution. An increase in the drug load further decreased the drug release from all the beads in both the dissolution media. FTIR, XRD, and DSC analyses demonstrated the absence of any interaction between the drug and the polymers. The results indicated that IPN hydrogel beads provided more sustained release of IBP than homopolymeric beads. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Adv Polym Techn 30:1–11, 2011; View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com. DOI 10.1002/adv.20199

Interpenetrating network (IPN) matrix tablets of diltiazem-HCl (DTZ) was prepared by wet granulation method using polyacrylamide-grafted-sodium alginate (PAam-g-SAL) co-polymer and sodium alginate (SAL) for sustained release of the drug. Formulation of IPN structure was examined using FTIR spectroscopy, and compatibility of the drug with the polymers was evaluated through FTIR, DSC, and XRD analyses. The effect of co-polymer/SAL ratios, drug load, and total polymer/calcium gluconate (CG) ratios on drug release in acidic and phosphate buffer solutions was investigated. The release of drug was controlled by the relative magnitude of swelling capacity of IPN matrix and viscosity of the gel formed following dissolution of the polymers. The swelling capacity of the matrix was governed by the formation of calcium alginate gel structure and the rigidity imparted by the co-polymer. The results indicated that IPN matrix tablets of PAam-g-SAL and SAL could be used for sustained release of DTZ.

Interpenetrating network (IPN) beads of sodium carboxymethyl xanthan (SCMX) and sodium alginate (SAL) were pre-pared by ionotropic gelation process using AlCl3 as a cross-linking agent. The effect of different formulation vari-ables like total polymer concentration, gelation time, concentration of cross-linking agent, and drug load on the extent of release of ibuprofen (IBP), a non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, was examined. The formation of IPN structure was examined using Fourier Transform Infra-red (FTIR) analysis and the compatibility of the drug in the bead was evaluated through FTIR, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analyses. While increase in the concentration of total polymer, gelation time, and drug load decreased the drug release in both acidic (pH-1.2) and phosphate buffer (PB) solution (pH-6.8), increase in the concentration of cross-linking agent tended to increase the drug release. However, from all the formulations, the drug release in acidic medium was considerably slow and a maximum 14% of the loaded drug was released in 2 h. Complete drug release was achieved in PB solution within 210 to 330 min depending upon the formulation variables. The release of the drug followed non-Fickian transport process in acidic medium and case-II transport mechanism in PB solution and these release behaviour correlated well with the kinetics of dynamic swelling of IPN beads. The study indicated that the IPN beads of SCMX and SAL could be a suitable dosage form to minimize the drug release in acidic solution and to control the drug release in PB solution depending upon the need.

Diltiazem hydrochloride (DTZ) matrix tablets were prepared using polyacrylamide-grafted sodium alginate (PAam-g-SA) co-polymers having different percentages of grafting and their partially hydrolyzed products with a view to achieve sustained release of the highly water-soluble drug. PAam-g-SA co-polymers having different percentages of grafting were synthesized by free radical polymerization using acrylamide (Aam) as monomer and ammonium persulphate (APS) as initiator, and the resulting co-polymers were subjected to alkaline hydrolysis to produce their corresponding partially hydrolyzed co-polymers. Matrix tablets of DTZ were prepared by wet granulation using either PAam-g-SA co-polymers or partially hydrolyzed PAam-g-SA co-polymers. The effect of percentage grafting, drug load and calcium gluconate (CG), used as excipient, was studied in simulated gastrointestinal fluid. While the tablets prepared using the co-polymer having higher percentages of grafting provided faster drug release (100% in 5.5 h), the tablets prepared with the corresponding hydrolyzed co-polymer released the drug slowly (71% in 12 h). This behaviour in release appeared to be controlled by the relative magnitude of the viscosity and the swelling capacity of the copolymers. Moreover, increase in drug load tended to decrease the drug release from all types of tablets and increase in the amount of CG increased the drug release. FT-IR and DSC studies revealed the absence of any interaction between the drug and the co-polymers. The matrix tablet made of partially hydrolyzed graft co-polymer having the highest percentage of grafting provided the most sustained release of the drug.

Globally, around 0.4×106 km2 area of land is estimated to be disturbed by mining activities, thereby contributing to severe environmental consequences including the generation of large amounts of mine spoils. The shortfall in topsoil due to poor striping practices and low levels of organic matter have been identified as common problems in rehabilitation of mining spoil. High heavy metal concentrations in mine spoil can adversely impact microbial activity and subsequent revegetation succession. The release of acids associated with mine spoils (ie, acid mine drainage through oxidation of pyrite) can also create adverse effects on the surrounding vegetation.Large quantities of biowaste, such as manure compost, biosolids, and municipal solid waste (MSW) that are low in contaminants [including metal(loid)s] can be used to rehabilitate mine spoils. These biowastes provide a source of nutrients and improve the fertility of spoils. These biowastes also act as a sink for metal(loid)s in mine tailings reducing their bioavailability through adsorption, complexation, reduction, and volatilization of metal(loid)s.This review provides an overview of the sources of biowastes and the current regulations for utilization; describes their benefits in terms of improving the physical, chemical, and biological properties of mine spoils; and elaborates on the role of the utilization of biowastes on mine spoil rehabilitation through several case studies. Finally, future research needs and strategies are identified in terms of sustainable biowaste utilization in mine spoil rehabilitation. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Biochar has created a lot of interest because of its unique properties of sustainable agricultural production and environmental protection. Biochar is known to reduce nitrogen loss from soil in terms of nitrous oxide emission and ammonia volatilization, improve the nutrient retention capacity and structural and chemical properties of soil, and increase plant growth and productivity. Biowaste materials such as biosolids, municipal waste, and paper mill sludge are effective raw materials for biochar production. These materials are rich in nutrient content, and biochar produced using these waste products is highly effective for agricultural production and environmental remediation.

Ammonia (NH3) volatilization is a major nitrogen (N) loss from the soil, especially under tropical conditions, NH3 volatilization results in low N use efficiency by crops. Incubation experiments were conducted using five soils (pH 5.5–9.0), three N sources such as, urea, di-ammonium phosphate (DAP), and poultry manure (PM) and two biochars such as, poultry litter biochar (PL-BC) and macadamia nut shell biochar (MS-BC). Ammonia volatilization was higher at soil with higher pH (pH exceeding 8) due to the increased hydroxyl ions. Among the N sources, urea recorded the highest NH3 volatilization (151.6 mg kg−1 soil) followed by PM (124.2 mg kg−1 soil) and DAP (99 mg kg−1 soil). Ammonia volatilization was reduced by approximately 70% with PL-BC and MS-BC. The decreased NH3 volatilization with biochars is attributed to multiple mechanisms such as NH3 adsorption/immobilization, and nitrification. Moreover, biochar increased wheat dry weight and N uptake as high as by 24.24% and 76.11%, respectively. This study unravels the immense potential of biochar in decreasing N volatilization from soils and simultaneously improving use efficiency by wheat. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Soil acidification can be accelerated by intensive farming or prevented by sustainable management practices. Soil acidification in a managed agricultural production system is caused by the transformation of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S), which releases protons (H+) to soil solution. Soil acidification decreases soil pH, causing adverse effects on plants and soil microorganisms. Acidification, coupled with aluminum, manganese, and iron toxicities, and phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and potassium deficiencies, can lead to low soil fertility. Soil acidity influences soil C and N cycles by controlling activities of microorganisms involved in the transformations of these two elements. Traditionally, lime materials are added to neutralize acidic soils and to overcome the problems associated with soil acidification, but they also influence C and N cycles, thereby affecting greenhouse gas (GHG) flux in soils. For example, liming has been shown to decrease nitrification-induced nitrous oxide (N2O) emission from many agricultural lands. However, there are concerns that liming increases the availability of soil nitrate ( N O 3 − ), which is a substrate for N2O emission through denitrification. The dissolution of liming materials can act as either a net source or sink for carbon dioxide (CO2). Lime-derived CO2 reacts with microbial respiration-derived carbonic acid in soils to yield carbonate material, serving as a sink of CO2 in soil. In calcareous soils with high pH, agricultural lime (CaCO3) serves as a net sink for CO2 whereas in acid soils it serves as a net source of CO2. In acid soils, increased availability of aluminum (Al3+) ions inhibits activity of methane (CH4) oxidizers. Adding lime to soils has shown to increase CH4 oxidation and reduce GHG emission. The present review brings together basic concepts of soil acidification and recent developments on the implications of liming in relation to C and N transformations and cycling, particularly GHG emissions from soils. Given the major influence of lime addition on soil microorganisms relating to C and N cycles, future research should focus on the role of liming on soil microbial communities to provide insight into combined mitigation of N2O, CO2, and CH4 gases from agricultural soils.

The objective of this study was to develop a sustained release dosage form of Trimetazidine dihydrochloride (TMZ) using a natural polymeric carrier prepared in a completely aqueous environment. TMZ was entrapped in calcium alginate beads prepared with sodium alginate by the ionotropic gelation method using calcium chloride as a crosslinking agent. The drug was incorporated either into preformed calcium alginate gel beads (sequential method) or incorporated simultaneously during the gelation stage (simultaneous method). The beads were evaluated for particle size and surface morphology using optical microscopy and SEM, respectively. Beads produced by the sequential method had higher drug entrapment. Drug entrapment in the sequential method was higher with increased CaCl2 and polymer concentration but lower with increased drug concentration. In the simultaneous method, drug entrapment was higher when polymer and drug concentration were increased and also rose to a certain extent with increase in CaCl2 concentration, where further increase resulted in lower drug loading. FTIR studies revealed that there is no interaction between drug and CaCl2. XRD studies showed that the crystalline drug changed to an amorphous state after formulation. Release characteristics of the TMZ loaded calcium alginate beads were studied in enzyme-free simulated gastric and intestinal fluid.O objetivo deste estudo foi desenvolver forma de liberação controlada de dicloridrato de trimetazidina (TMZ) utilizando transportador plomérico natural em ambiente completamente aquoso. A TMZ foi presa em pérolas de alginato de cálcio preparadas com alginato de sódio pelo método de gelatinização ionotrópica, usando cloreto de cálcio como agente de formação de ligações cruzadas. O fármaco foi incorporado nas pérolas de gel de alginato de cálcio (método sequencial) ou incorporado, simultaneamente, durante o estágio de gelificação (método simultâneo). As pérolas foram avaliadas quanto ao tamanho das partículas e morfologia da superfície utilizando microscopia óptica de SEM, respectivamente. As pérolas produzidas pelo método sequencial apresentaram maior capacidade de inclusão. No método sequencial, a inclusão de fármaco foi maior com o aumento de CaCl2 e da concentração do plímero, mas menor com o aumento da concentração de fármaco. No método simultâneo, a inclusão de fármaco foi mais alta quando as concentrações de fármaco e plímero foram aumentadas e, também, atingiram certa extensão com aumento na concentração de CaCl2, cujo aumento posterior resultou em carga menor de fármaco. Estudos de FTIR revelaram que não há interação entre fármaco e CaCl2. Estudos de XRD mostraram que o fármaco mudou do estado cristalino para o amorfo após a formulação. As características de liberação de TMZ das pérolas carregadas com alginato de cálcio foram estudadas em fluidos simulados, gástrico e intestinal, livres de enzima.