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Vascular diseases are a major complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), although their etiology is poorly understood. NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and inflammation are potential mediators of DM-associated vascular diseases. Using db/db mice as a Type 2 diabetes model, we examined the relationship between NADPH oxidase-derived ROS and vascular inflammation. When compared with control m+/+ mice, aortas from 4- and 12-wk-old db/db mice had higher NADPH oxidase activity and increased superoxide levels, leading to NADPH oxidase-dependent impaired vasodilation at 12 wk. Diabetes progression from 4 to 12 wk led to increased Nox1, Nox4, and [p22.sup.phox] subunit mRNAs and induced the expression of a group of matrix remodeling-related cytokines: connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP-4), and osteopontin (OPN). After 8 wk of treatment with the superoxide scavenger Tempol, 12-wk-old db/db mice had lower superoxide production, reduced plasma glucose and lipids, and lower BMP-4 and OPN protein expression when compared with nontreated mice. No changes were observed with Tempol in CTGF or m+/+ mice. The ability of Tempol to reverse ROS production as well as OPN and BMP-4, but not CTGF, induction suggests that DM-induced vascular inflammation involves both ROS-sensitive and -insensitive pathways. vascular inflammation; NADPH oxidases; cytokines; superoxide; metabolic syndrome doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00943.2006

Angiotensin II (Ang II) is a pleuripotential hormone that is important in the pathophysiology of multiple conditions including aging, cardiovascular and renal diseases, and insulin resistance. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important mediators of Ang II-induced signaling generally and have a well defined role in vascular hypertrophy, which is inhibited by overexpression of catalase, inferring a specific role of H2O2. The molecular mechanisms are understood incompletely. The transcriptional coactivator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) is a key regulator of energy metabolism and ROS-scavenging enzymes including catalase. We show that Ang II stimulates Akt-dependent PGC-1α serine 570 phosphorylation, which is required for the binding of the histone acetyltransferase GCN5 (general control nonderepressible 5) to PGC-1α and for its lysine acetylation. These sequential post-translational modifications suppress PGC-1α activity and prevent its binding to the catalase promoter through the forkhead box O1 transcription factor, thus decreasing catalase expression. We demonstrate that overexpression of the phosphorylation-defective mutant PGC-1α (S570A) prevents Ang II-induced increases in H2O2 levels and hypertrophy ([³H]leucine incorporation). Knockdown of PGC-1α by small interfering RNA promotes basal and Ang II-stimulated ROS and hypertrophy, which is reversed by polyethylene glycol-conjugated catalase. Thus, endogenous PGC-1α is a negative regulator of vascular hypertrophy by up-regulating catalase expression and thus reducing ROS levels. We provide novel mechanistic insights by which Ang II may mediate its ROS-dependent pathophysiologic effects on multiple cardiometabolic diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Akt/protein kinase B (PKB) activation/phosphorylation by angiotensin II (Ang II) is a critical signaling event in hypertrophy of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Conventional wisdom asserts that Akt activation occurs mainly in plasma membrane domains. Recent evidence that Akt activation may take place within intracellular compartments challenges this dogma. The spatial identity and mechanistic features of these putative signaling domains have not been defined. Using cell fractionation and fluorescence methods, we demonstrate that the early endosomal antigen-1 (EEA1)-positive endosomes are a major site of Ang II-induced Akt activation. Akt moves to and is activated in EEA1 endosomes. The expression of EEA1 is required for phosphorylation of Akt at both Thr-308 and Ser-473 as well as for phosphorylation of its downstream targets mTOR and S6 kinase, but not for Erk1/2 activation. Both Akt and phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt) interact with EEA1. We also found that PKC-α is required for organizing Ang II-induced, EEA1-dependent Akt phosphorylation in VSMC early endosomes. EEA1 expression enables PKC-α phosphorylation, which in turn regulates Akt upstream signaling kinases, PDK1 and p38 MAPK. Our results indicate that PKC-α is a necessary regulator of EEA1-dependent Akt signaling in early endosomes. Finally, EEA1 down-regulation or expression of a dominant negative mutant of PKC-α blunts Ang II-induced leucine incorporation in VSMCs. Thus, EEA1 serves a novel function as an obligate scaffold for Ang II-induced Akt activation in early endosomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Angiotensin II (ANG II) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetic micro- and macrovascular disease. In vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), ANG II phosphorylates and degrades insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1). While the pathway responsible for IRS-1 degradation in this system is unknown, c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) has been linked with serine phosphorylation of IRS-1 and insulin resistance. We investigated the role of JNK in ANG II-induced IRS-1 phosphorylation, degradation, Akt activation, glucose uptake, and hypertrophic signaling, focusing on three IRS-1 phosphorylation sites: Ser302, Ser307, and Ser632. Maximal IRS-1 phosphorylation on Ser632 occurred at 5 min, on Ser307 at 30 min, and on Ser302 at 60 min. The JNK inhibitor SP600125 reduced ANG II-induced IRS-1 Ser307 phosphorylation (by 80%), IRS-1 Ser302 phosphorylation (by 70%), and IRS-1 Ser632 phosphorylation (by 50%). However, JNK inhibition had no effect on ANG II-mediated IRS-1 degradation, nor did it reverse the ANG II-induced decrease in Akt phosphorylation or glucose uptake. Transfection of VSMCs with mutants S307A, S302A, or S632A of IRS-1 did not block ANG II-mediated IRS-1 degradation. In contrast, JNK inhibition attenuated insulin-induced upregulation of collagen and smooth muscle α-actin in ANG II-pretreated cells. We conclude that phosphorylation of Ser307, Ser302, and Ser632 of IRS-1 is not involved in ANG II-mediated IRS-1 degradation, and that JNK alone does not mediate ANG II-stimulated IRS-1 degradation, but rather is responsible for the hypertrophic effects of insulin on smooth muscle.

Angiotensin II (Ang II) is a pleuripotential hormone that is important in the pathophysiology of multiple conditions including aging, cardiovascular and renal diseases, and insulin resistance. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important mediators of Ang II-induced signaling generally and have a well defined role in vascular hypertrophy, which is inhibited by overexpression of catalase, inferring a specific role of H(2)O(2). The molecular mechanisms are understood incompletely. The transcriptional coactivator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1 alpha) is a key regulator of energy metabolism and ROS-scavenging enzymes including catalase. We show that Ang II stimulates Akt-dependent PGC-1 alpha serine 570 phosphorylation, which is required for the binding of the histone acetyltransferase GCN5 (general control nonderepressible 5) to PGC-1 alpha and for its lysine acetylation. These sequential post-translational modifications suppress PGC-1 alpha activity and prevent its binding to the catalase promoter through the forkhead box O1 transcription factor, thus decreasing catalase expression. We demonstrate that overexpression of the phosphorylation-defective mutant PGC-1 alpha (S570A) prevents Ang II-induced increases in H(2)O(2) levels and hypertrophy ([(3)H]leucine incorporation). Knockdown of PGC-1 alpha by small interfering RNA promotes basal and Ang II-stimulated ROS and hypertrophy, which is reversed by polyethylene glycol-conjugated catalase. Thus, endogenous PGC-1 alpha is a negative regulator of vascular hypertrophy by up-regulating catalase expression and thus reducing ROS levels. We provide novel mechanistic insights by which Ang II may mediate its ROS-dependent pathophysiologic effects on multiple cardiometabolic diseases.

Objective: Vascular NADPH oxidases (Noxes) have been implicated in cardiovascular diseases; however, the importance of individual Nox homologues remains unclear. Here, the role of the vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) Nox1 in neointima formation was studied using genetically modified animal models., Methods and Results: Wire injury-induced neointima formation in the femoral artery, along with proliferation and apoptosis, was reduced in Nox1(y/-) mice, but there was little difference in Tg(SMCnox1) mice compared with wild-type (WT) mice. Proliferation and migration were reduced in cultured Nox1(y/-) VSMCs and increased in Tg(SMCnox1) cells. Tg(SMCnox1) cells exhibited increased fibronectin secretion, but neither collagen I production nor cell adhesion was affected by alteration of Nox1. Using antibody microarray and Western blotting analysis, increased cofilin phosphorylation and mDia1 expression and decreased PAK1 expression were detected in Nox1(y/-) cells. Overexpression of S3A, a constitutively active cofilin mutant, partially recovered reduced migration of Nox1(y/-) cells, suggesting that reduction in cofilin activity contributes to impaired migration of Nox1(y/-) VSMCs., Conclusions: These results indicate that Nox1 plays a critical role in neointima formation by mediating VSMC migration, proliferation, and extracellular matrix production, and that cofilin is a major effector of Nox1-mediated migration. Inhibition of Nox1 may be an efficient strategy to suppress neointimal formation.

Background: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been implicated in the development of cardiovascular pathologies. NAD(P)H oxidases (Noxes) are major sources of reactive oxygen species in the vessel wall, but the importance of individual Nox homologues in specific layers of the vascular wall is unclear. Nox1 upregulation has been implicated in cardiovascular pathologies such as hypertension and restenosis., Methods and Results: To investigate the pathological role of Nox1 upregulation in vascular smooth muscle, transgenic mice overexpressing Nox1 in smooth muscle cells (TgSMCnox1) were created, and the impact of Nox1 upregulation on the medial hypertrophic response during angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced hypertension was studied. These mice have increased expression of Nox1 protein in the vasculature, which is accompanied by increased superoxide production. Infusion of Ang II (0.7 mg/kg per day) into these mice for 2 weeks led to a potentiation of superoxide production compared with similarly treated negative littermate controls. Systolic blood pressure and aortic hypertrophy were also markedly greater in TgSMCnox1 mice than in their littermate controls. To confirm that this potentiation of vascular hypertrophy and hypertension was due to increased ROS formation, additional groups of mice were coinfused with the antioxidant Tempol. Tempol decreased the level of Ang II-induced aortic superoxide production and partially reversed the hypertrophic and hypertensive responses in these animals., Conclusions: These data indicate that smooth muscle-specific Nox1 overexpression augments the oxidative, pressor, and hypertrophic responses to Ang II, supporting the concept that medial Nox1 participates in the development of cardiovascular pathologies.