Search

Mobility is a human right. The traditional definition of mobility in physical therapy practice is centered on translocation and, while accurate, is not comprehensive. In this article, we propose the ON Time Mobility framework: that all children have the right to be mobile throughout their development to explore, engage in relationships, and develop agency to cocreate their lives. This perspective highlights interconnected principles of timing, urgency, multimodal, frequency, and sociability to begin discussions on supporting the right to hours of active mobility each day for all children. We propose critical evaluation and discussion of these principles followed by a call to action to shift our conceptualization and enactment of mobility. This mobility rights perspective challenges current medical systems, industry, and government to collaborate with children with disabilities, their families and communities to support mobility as a source of physical and social interactions that define and develop individuals (see Supplemental Digital Content 1, the Video Abstract, available at: http://links.lww.com/PPT/A398 ).

The purposes of this study were (a) to investigate the prevalence of physical educators who report delivering high-quality instructional practices to students with disabilities and (b) to examine the relationships between teachers’ qualifications and the delivery of high-quality instructional practices. A secondary analysis using data from the School Health Policy and Practice Study 2014 data set was employed. The analytic sample included 256 physical educators who taught students with disabilities. Prevalence estimates of physical educators who reported using high-quality instructional practices were calculated. Two separate binary logistic regressions using weighted data were conducted to evaluate the relative contribution of (a) teacher qualifications and (b) educational degrees in accounting for differences in the use of high-quality instructional practices. Less than half of the sample reported using high-quality instructional practices. Considering the increasing prevalence of students with disabilities in general education classrooms, teacher education programs should prioritize providing teacher candidates with coursework that aligns with the expectations of physical educators who teach students with disabilities.

Modified ride-on cars (MROC) are a low-cost option to provide self-directed mobility to children with mobility limitations, in lieu of or as a precursor to other powered mobility devices. We appraised evidence to (1) describe and categorize MROC study characteristics, (2) synthesize existing knowledge of children’s use of MROCs and (3) frame outcomes within the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) framework. Articles were identified through four electronic databases: Medline, CINAHL, PsycNET, and Web of Science. We included all published, peer-reviewed studies involving MROC use. Relevant data were extracted, and articles were appraised using the American Academy of Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine criteria for group and single-subject designs. 23 studies met inclusion criteria of 204 titles identified from 1980 to 2021. Study designs included case studies, case series, group designs, and qualitative research, but only three studies were rated evidence level III or higher. Children with a range of disabilities used MROCs across multiple settings, including the home, hospital, and community, though use and adherence varied widely. Positive impacts were reported on a range of outcomes related to the ICF framework, with an emphasis on activity and participation. MROC studies have primarily addressed activity and participation, with most studies suggesting increased functional mobility and social interactions due to MROC use. More robust research designs with larger samples are needed in order to develop evidence-based strategies for MROC use.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONPhysical and occupational therapists may consider using MROCs as a therapeutic tool or accessible play opportunity as part of a multi-modal approach to increase children’s mobility, family engagement, and participation in community life.Personal (e.g., child’s enjoyment) and environmental factors (e.g., caregiver attitudes and stress) must be considered when developing plans of MROC use. Physical and occupational therapists may consider using MROCs as a therapeutic tool or accessible play opportunity as part of a multi-modal approach to increase children’s mobility, family engagement, and participation in community life. Personal (e.g., child’s enjoyment) and environmental factors (e.g., caregiver attitudes and stress) must be considered when developing plans of MROC use.

Background Previous research has shown that school recess can provide children with physical, social and cognitive benefits; yet, recess opportunities and experiences may be different for different groups of children, specifically for children living in lower income environments, children of different racial groups other than white, and for children with disabilities. Parent perceptions of recess are important to consider as they serve as advocates for their children’s access and opportunities at school as well as an additional informant for children’s experiences at recess that may be useful for policymakers and school boards to consider. Objective To examine parent perceptions of recess by children’s disability status, children’s race and ethnicity, and family household income. Method Participants included 473 parents from the U.S.A. stratified across six household income levels. Data were collected through an online survey using Prolific in May of 2020]. Confirmatory factor analyses were run for measures assessing parents’ perception of belonging and victimization at recess, recess policies, and recess procedures. Regression analyses were run to examine if parents’ perception of recess were predicted by race, income, or child disability status. Results Results revealed that parents’ perceptions of recess were predicted by child disability status but not race or income. Specifically, parents’ perceptions were significantly predicted by child disability status regarding victimization (b = .13, SE = .06, p = .05), recess policies about withholding recess (b = .171, SE = .07, p = .01), and finally, student engagement at recess (b = .165, SE = .07, p = .02). Conclusion Results show that parents of children with a disability perceive a different recess experience for their child that involves more instances of victimization compared to parents of typically developing children. Based on these findings, school, district, and state policy makers could consider ensuring that recess includes multiple activities, is supervised by adults, and is a space where conflict resolution occurs, for creating a more inclusive environment for children with disabilities.

Objective The aims of this study are 2-fold: (1) to evaluate a powered mobility intervention to promote developmental, activity, and participation outcomes of young children aged 12 to 36 months who have cerebral palsy; and (2) to compare the use patterns (frequency, duration, environment) of 2 different powered mobility options. Methods This study is a multisite, mixed-methods, doubly counterbalanced, randomized, crossover clinical trial, where intervention A is the Permobil Explorer Mini and intervention B is a modified ride-on toy car. The study will take place in rural and urban home and community settings surrounding 3 sites (Washington, Oregon, and Michigan). There will be 24 child-caregiver dyads in the study (8 dyads per site). Primary outcome measures include the Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development, the Youth and Children’s Participation and Environment Measure, the Assessment for Learning Power mobility use, automated device use tracking logs, caregiver semistructured interviews, and the Acceptability, Feasibility, and Intervention Appropriateness Measures. Secondary measures include the Child Engagement in Daily Life and caregiver diaries. Impact The use of powered mobility devices for young children with cerebral palsy has gained traction, with evidence that the use of powered mobility at young ages complements (rather than detracts from) other interventions focused on more traditional mobility skills such as crawling and walking. However, research is limited, and often comprised of low-level evidence. Given the clearance of the first powered mobility device for infants, the Permobil Explorer Mini, and the recent popularity of modified ride-on toy cars as an alternative for powered mobility for young children with disabilities, this study will contribute to rigorous examination of the developmental outcomes, use patterns, and caregiver perceptions of these novel devices.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the reference accuracy of articles from a random sample of issues from 1999, 2009, and 2019 of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES). ...

Aim 1 was to establish updated prevalence estimates for meeting national physical activity (PA) guidelines among adolescents with and without special healthcare needs (SHCN), 12–17 years old. To identify at-risk subgroups, our sub-aim was to compare the distribution of prevalence estimates across PA levels by SHCN subtypes, and in reference to peers without SHCN. Aim 2 was to examine the association between meeting PA guidelines, having a medical home, and receiving positive health behavior counseling in this population. Weighted prevalence estimates for meeting the 2018 National PA Guidelines (inactive, insufficiently active, sufficiently active: guidelines met) were calculated from a secondary analysis of the National Survey of Children’s Health 2016–2017 ( n = 16,171, 27% SHCN). Adjusted odds ratios and 95% CIs were estimated from logistic regression models to measure the association between PA, medical home, and postive health behavior counseling. Of adolescents with SHCN, 15% were reported to be meeting PA guidelines compared to 19% of peers without SHCN peers. Among adolescents with a medical home, regardless of SHCN status, those receiving positive health behavior counseling had 1.70 times the adjusted odds of meeting PA guidelines compared to peers without counseling. Adolescents with and without SHCN were more likely to meet PA guidelines if they had a medical home and received positive health behavior counseling, highlighting the value of comprehensive healthcare practices for PA promotion.

Purpose The purpose of the study is to examine how perceived barriers change before and after a 3-month period of modified ride-on car use. Methods This study used a qualitative content analysis of perceived barriers. Fourteen caregivers (13 mothers; 1 grandmother) responded to a single-question, free-response survey before and after a 3-month period of modified ride-on car use. Results A total of 11 and 20 perceived barriers were reported before and after the 3-month period. Environmental barriers were the most frequently reported before and after the 3-month period. Conclusions Pediatric physical therapists need to be aware of the potential perceived barriers that families may experience in regard to young children with disabilities using modified ride-on cars and determine strategies to support families on an individual basis.

Purpose: The aims of the current study include to: (1) describe the item development; and (2) begin the process of establishing the internal consistency and known-groups validity of the Self-Directed Mobility Scale. The purpose of the scale is to assess paediatric physical and occupational therapists' views towards self-directed mobility and their perceived ability and intentions to advocate for children's access to self-directed mobility.Methods: Three individuals with expertise in kinesiology, psychology, paediatric rehabilitation, and disability studies served as the expert panel for item development. Four samples were included to determine internal consistency and known-groups validity: 350 physical therapists, 89 occupational therapists, 279 kinesiology undergraduate students, and 528 health and wellness undergraduate students.Results: The internal consistency was above the acceptable level of 0.70 (range = 0.72-0.77) for all samples when two items regarding promoting other motor skills prior to powered mobility use and the temporary use of a mobility device were removed. Known-groups validity was established between all samples.Conclusions: The Self-Directed Mobility Scale appears to be a valid tool for assessing views of self-directed mobility and mobility advocacy intentions in paediatric physical and occupational therapists, as well as undergraduate students. Future work should examine the internal consistency based on study sample to ensure the (> 0.70) acceptable Cronbach's alpha level is met.Implications for rehabilitationThe Self-Directed Mobility Scale is a viable measurement tool to assess views of self-directed mobility and mobility advocacy intentions of pediatric physical and occupational therapists.In combination with other measures, the Self-Directed Mobility Scale may be used in future rehabilitation research to evaluate factors associated with provision of mobility technology to children with disabilities.

Global health guidelines suggest that youth should accumulate at least 60min of daily, moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA). The relationship between meeting physical activity (PA) guidelines and motor competence (MC) in youth is relatively unknown. This study assessed levels of MVPA and MC among socially vulnerable youth and determined if meeting the PA guidelines was associated with MC.Cross-sectional.A total of 1017 youths aged 3-14 years from three schools participated in the study. Participants wore accelerometers for seven consecutive days to assess PA. Motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd Edition and the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. MVPA and MC were compared by sex and school levels (preschool, elementary school and middle school). Binary logistic regression models examined the predictive power of meeting PA guidelines and age on MC.The prevalence of meeting PA guidelines declined across school levels among both girls (72% in preschool to 21% in middle school, p0.001) and boys (84% in preschool to 57% in middle school, p0.001). MC levels were low and also declined across age in both sexes (p0.001). During preschool, age (older) was a consistent predictor of low MC, independently of meeting PA guidelines.Except for adolescent boys, meeting PA guidelines was not associated with higher MC. Public health policies should focus on the quantity and quality of MVPA within schools and on alleviating the decline in PA and MC across childhood and adolescence, with special attention to girls and disadvantaged families.

Purpose Modified ride-on cars have emerged as an early powered mobility option for young children with disabilities. The purpose of this study was to identify, extract, and synthesize perceived barriers of modified ride-on car use reported in previous studies. Methods This study was descriptive using a qualitative content analysis of previously published studies identified from a systematic literature search. Results Categories of perceived barriers were identified: device, environmental, child-related perceived barriers regarding health, tolerance, and abilities, and caregiver-related perceived barriers regarding physical requirements, time, and motivation. Device and environmental perceived barriers were the most reported. Conclusions Pediatric physical therapists play a critical role in working with families to promote their self-efficacy for using the modified ride-on car and their capacity for overcoming the inherent difficulties associated with use. Most of the reported perceived barriers are modifiable, at least to some degree, with likely effects on modified ride-on car use.

Background: Children and adolescents with disabilities often report low levels of physical activity (PA). Estimating the magnitude of PA disparities has been previously challenged by underreporting and variability in subsampling of disability. Using the National Survey of Children’s Health, this study estimated the population-level PA disparities experienced and the association between disability status and PA engagement. Methods: Weighted prevalence of PA engagement (National Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (2nd edition) and sports participation) was compared across disability groups for children (n = 20,867, 6–11 y) and adolescents (n = 28,651, 12–17 y) and found to be 12%. Age-stratified multivariable logistic regressions estimated the likelihood of PA engagement as a function of disability status and type, after adjusting for child and household factors. Results: Children, but not adolescents, with disabilities had significantly lower odds of being sufficiently active compared with peers without disabilities (adjusted odds ratio = 0.75; 95% confidence interval, 0.60–0.94). Across age groups, the lowest prevalence rates were observed among those experiencing function and mobility disabilities. Children and adolescents were significantly less likely to participate in sports compared with peers. Conclusion: Children with function and mobility disabilities were identified as priority subpopulations least likely to be sufficiently active. The disparity in sports participation highlights a critical intervention point for increasing PA among children with disabilities.

This study delivered an intervention that included education, contact by video, an environmental assessment and reflection activity, and hands-on experiences via a university course that centred on...

Leisure engagement has risen as a salient societal issue during the COVID-19 pandemic, not only because it provides a pathway for people to continue meeting their physical, cognitive, and social-emotional needs, but also due to the phenomenal juxtaposition of general increases in leisure time and unparalleled constraints. This study reports the results of the first investigation of U.S. adults’ overall leisure engagement and its association with mental health amidst the major disruptions and sustained stress of the COVID-19 pandemic. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected through an online survey in February 2021 through Prolific from a sample representative of the U.S. adult population in age, gender, and race (n = 503) and analyzed using a mixed-method approach. A total of 104 unique leisure activities in 19 categories and 3 domains were identified through iterative thematic coding. Participants reported general increases in home-based traditional leisure and digital/online activities and decreases in physical and nature-based activities. Multiple regression analyses controlling for socio-demographic and context-specific covariates revealed distinct associations between changes in leisure engagement and different aspects of mental health (perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and mental wellbeing), supporting leisure’s dual role in facilitating stress alleviation and wellbeing enhancement during taxing events, such as COVID-19.

Background: Play is critical for children’s physical, cognitive, and social development. Technology-based toys like robots are especially of interest to children. This pilot study explores the affordances of the play area provided by developmentally appropriate toys and a mobile socially assistive robot (SAR). The objective of this study is to assess the role of the SAR on physical activity, play behavior, and toy-use behavior of children during free play.Methods: Six children (5 females, Mage = 3.6 ± 1.9 years) participated in the majority of our pilot study’s seven 30-minute-long weekly play sessions (4 baseline and 3 intervention). During baseline sessions, the SAR was powered off. During intervention sessions, the SAR was teleoperated to move in the play area and offered rewards of lights, sounds, and bubbles to children. Thirty-minute videos of the play sessions were annotated using a momentary time sampling observation system. Mean percentage of time spent in behaviors of interest in baseline and intervention sessions were calculated. Paired-Wilcoxon signed rank tests were conducted to assess differences between baseline and intervention sessions.Results: There was a significant increase in children’s standing (∼15%; Z = −2.09; p = 0.037) and a tendency for less time sitting (∼19%; Z = −1.89; p = 0.059) in the intervention phase as compared to the baseline phase. There was also a significant decrease (∼4.5%, Z = −2.70; p = 0.007) in peer interaction play and a tendency for greater (∼4.5%, Z = −1.89; p = 0.059) interaction with adults in the intervention phase as compared to the baseline phase. There was a significant increase in children’s interaction with the robot (∼11.5%, Z = −2.52; p = 0.012) in the intervention phase as compared to the baseline phase.Conclusion: These results may indicate that a mobile SAR provides affordances through rewards that elicit children’s interaction with the SAR and more time standing in free play. This pilot study lays a foundation for exploring the role of SARs in inclusive play environments for children with and without mobility disabilities in real-world settings like day-care centers and preschools.

Background: Go Baby Go is a community program that provides modified ride-on cars to young children with disabilities. Aims: (1) To describe the real world modified ride-on car usage of young children with disabilities; (2) To compare subjectively reported modified ride-on car usage recorded by parents with objectively reported usage based on electronic tracking data. Methods: 14 young children (1–3 years old) with disabilities used a modified ride-on car for three months. Results: On average, parent-reported activity log data indicated that children used the modified ride-on car for 17.8 minutes per session (SD = 9.9) and 195.1 total minutes (SD = 234.8) over three months. Objective tracking data indicated 16.5 minutes per session (SD = 8.6) and 171.4 total minutes (SD = 206.1) over three months. No significant difference of modified ride-on car usage was found between parent-reported activity log data and objective tracking; yet, the mean absolute difference between tracking methods was 96 minutes (SD = 8.6) and suggests over- or under-reporting of families. Children used the modified ride-on car more in the first half compared to the second half of the three-month period (p Conclusions: This study may inform future research studies and local chapters of the Go Baby Go community program.

Unfavorable attitudes or stigma toward people with disabilities are invisible barriers that contribute to social inequities such as disparities in higher education enrollment and degree completion. Additionally, disability models, or underlying beliefs about whether disability is a problem inherent

The purpose of this study is to describe the driving experience and emotional responses of young children who experience mobility limitations during initial use of the Explorer Mini, a new pediatric powered mobility device.The current study utilized a descriptive, cross-sectional, and mixed- method approach. Thirty-three young children between 6 and 36 months of age who experience mobility limitations participated in this study and were provided up to two, 15-minute driving sessions with the Explorer Mini. Researchers completed an observation form that included field notes (qualitative data) and answers to yes/no questions to generate percentages of observed behaviors (quantitative data) regarding young children's driving experience and emotional responses while using the Explorer Mini.Thematic analysis from field notes (i.e., qualitative data) revealed two inter-related themes: 1) I can move, 2) I think I like it- don't I? Ninety four percent (i.e., quantitative data) of young children were able to move the Explorer Mini to explore their environment.Young children demonstrated self-initiated mobility with a powered mobility device using the midline joystick. The results support the notion that infants 6-36 months can effectively use the Explorer Mini. The device received Food and Drug Administration 510k clearance in February 2020.

Children with congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) present severe motor disability and can benefit from early powered mobility. The Go Zika Go project uses modified ride-on toy cars, which may advance the body functions, activities, and participation of children. This paper describes the study protocol aiming to assess the feasibility of a modified ride-on car intervention for children with CZS in Brazil. A mixed-methods design with a multiple 1-week baseline, 3-month intervention, and 1-month follow-up will be implemented. Modified ride-on car training sessions will be conducted three times a week at the participants’ home or in the clinic. The primary outcome will be a narrative description of study feasibility (photovoice method, focus groups, parent feasibility questionnaire and assessment of learning powered mobility). Secondary outcomes will be switch activation, driving sessions journal, social-cognitive interactions, mobility (pediatric evaluation of disability inventory computer adaptive test), goal attainment scaling (GAS), and participation (young children’s participation and environment measure). Go Zika Go is expected to be viable and to improve function, activity, and participation of children with CZS, providing a low-cost, evidence-based rehabilitation option that will be relevant to early child development in a global perspective.

The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of infants with Down syndrome to use a modified ride-on car with seated and standing modes.Participants included 4 infants with Down syndrome. Families were asked to provide at least 8 minutes of modified ride-on car driving per day, at least 5 times per week throughout the 9-month intervention.Families demonstrated a variety of adherence rates to the intervention. Infants demonstrated independent activation of the modified ride-on car in seated and standing modes and enjoyed driving. The modified ride-on car intervention was feasible and warrants further testing to address barriers that influence adherence to the intervention.

A secondary data analysis of 33,093 children and adolescents age 6–17 years (12% with disabilities) from a 2016–2017 National Survey of Children’s Health nonrepresentative sample aimed to identify (a) unique clusters of sociodemographic characteristics and (b) the relative importance of disability status in predicting participation in daily physical activity (PA) and sports. Exploratory classification tree analyses identified hierarchical predictors of daily PA and sport participation separately. Disability status was not a primary predictor of daily PA. Instead, it emerged in the fifth level after age, sex, body mass index, and income, highlighting the dynamic intersection of disability with sociodemographic factors influencing PA levels. In comparison, disability status was a second-level predictor for sport participation, suggesting that unique factors influencing PA level are likely experienced by disabled children and adolescents. The authors employ an intersectionality lens to critically discuss implications for research in adapted PA.

Preterm infants are at risk for delays in motor, perceptual, and cognitive development. While research has shown preterm infants may exhibit learning delays in the first months of life, these delays are commonly under-diagnosed. The purpose of this study was to longitudinally evaluate behavioral performance and learning in two means-end problem-solving tasks for 30 infants born preterm (PT) and 23 born full-term (FT). Infants were assessed at 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 months-old in tasks that required towel pulling or turntable rotation to obtain a distant object. PT infants performed more non-goal-directed and less goal-directed behavior than FT infants throughout the study, resulting in a lower success rate among PT infants. PT infants showed delayed emergence of intentionality (prevalence of goal-directed behaviors) compared to FT infants in both tasks. Amount and variability of behavioral performance significantly correlated with task success differentially across age. The learning differences documented between PT and FT infants suggest means-end problem-solving tasks may be useful for the early detection of learning delays. The identification of behaviors associated with learning and success across age may be used to guide interventions aimed at advancing early learning for infants at risk.

Research has shown that children's levels of physical activity are set at an all-time low, which can lead to health problems such as obesity and diabetes. So, what can parents do to ensure that the...

Objective To determine, among a sample of young CSHCN with developmental conditions, (1) characteristics associated with receipt of both patient-centered medical home (PCMH) and Part C early intervention, (2) the association between each PCMH criterion and receipt of Part C generally, and (3) for CSHCN with disabilities versus delays. Methods Secondary data analysis of the 2009/10 National Survey of CSHCN. Sample included CSHCN (n = 755) birth to 3 years with a developmental disability or delay that affected their function. Adjusted ordinal regression analysis examined characteristics associated with receiving both PCMH and Part C. Stratified adjusted logistic regression examined the association between PCMH criteria and Part C, by disabilities versus delays. Results 19% of our sample received both PCMH and Part C. Black, non-Hispanic children had lower odds [OR 0.44, 95% CI (0.20, 0.97)] and CSHCN with more severe developmental conditions had higher odds [OR 2.13, 95% CI (1.22, 3.17)] of receiving both services. CSHCN with a PCMH were no more likely to be receiving Part C than those without a PCMH [OR 0.85, 95% CI (0.49, 1.49)]. Receiving any one of the PCMH criterion was not associated with receiving Part C, with one exception. Among CSHCN with delays, effective care coordination was associated with lower odds of Part C [OR 0.46, 95% CI (0.21, 0.97)]. Conclusion Concurrent PCMH and Part C access was low for young CSHCN with developmental conditions affecting their function. Given the overlapping mandates for PCMH and Part C, integrated efforts are warranted to identify if lack of concurrent services in fact reflects unmet service needs.

Aim Rehabilitation professionals are increasingly recognizing mobility as a basic human right and endorsing the efficacy of early powered mobility for children with mobility impairments to foster independence, promote socialization with peers and facilitate participation in family and community life. However, the relationship between mobility and technology provision, when considered in the context of lived experiences of children with mobility impairments and their families, is complex and understudied. Perceptions of these experiences from children's own points of view are especially limited, as is the use of participatory research methods in describing these experiences. The purpose of this study was to empower children and families as co-researchers, investigating their experiences and perspectives of powered mobility provision processes and early use of their mobility technology in their own words and images. Methods: Two families in a major Midwest metropolitan area- one who was receiving a powered wheelchair and one who was receiving a modified powered ride-on toy car- participated as co-researchers from 2015-2016, documenting their experiences with a research camera and narrating their photos to describe meaningful or important aspects of their respective powered mobility provision processes and early use of their devices. Results Four themes emerged: (1) Dys/Function of Mobility Technology; (2) Daily Life, Play and Participation; (3) Emerging Self/Advocacy and (4) Complex Family/Industry Interplay. Conclusions: These themes and experiences may inform further innovation in powered mobility practices, generate new hypotheses about the role of technology in shaping disability identity and demonstrate the feasibility and impact of using participatory methods more broadly in rehabilitation research. Implications for Rehabilitation Participatory methods may be a useful and underutilized research tool in describing the impact of powered mobility provision processes on child and family experiences of technology and disability. Empowering children and families as co-researchers is important to move the field of powered mobility technology forward in creating innovative, accessible and socially welcoming devices and processes. It is important to capture the similarities and differences in child and family perceptions and experiences within different models of powered mobility provision, such as traditional powered wheelchair prescription and crowdsourced ride-on toy car modification. Powered mobility provision processes and the perceptions and experiences of children and families move beyond business or medical transactions and may help shape disability identity and pride. A disability studies framework may be useful in analyzing the complexities of technology provision and the nuanced interplay between bodies and technology.

There has been recent interest in the developmental trajectory of the end-state comfort effect (ESCE) in young children. However, potential sex differences have yet to be examined in the overturned glass task. We examined the ESCE using this task in a large sample (N=232) of typically-developing elementary school children (111 girls, 121 boys) in grades 1-5 (approximately 7-11years old). We sought to determine whether there were similarities or differences in performance between boys and girls. Children picked up an overturned drinking glass from a table, turned the glass upright, and then poured water into it from a measuring cup. Three trials were performed, and the use of an initial awkward thumb-down grip to pick up the glass was taken as evidence for the ESCE. There were non-significant main effects for sex and grade, but a significant interaction between factors. Boys increased in sensitivity to end-state comfort across the five grades while girls showed a decrease from grades 1-3, followed by an increase between grades 3 and 5. Taken together, the results indicate the presence of adult-like motor planning for the overturned glass task by the 4th grade (i.e., age 10), but also suggest the presence of a motor reorganization in girls, at around the 2nd or 3rd grade (i.e., 8 or 9years of age).

Purpose The purpose of this single-subject case series study is to determine the effect of modified ride-on car use in natural environments on mobility. Method Three children younger than 2 years diagnosed with various disabilities participated in this 24-week study using a modified ride-on car in their home and community. Results All 3 children demonstrated an ability to independently use the modified ride-on car and enjoyed doing so. Two of the 3 children demonstrated clinically significant gains in mobility skills as measured by the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory. Conclusions Modified ride-on car use is an emerging powered mobility device option for children younger than 2 years. Further research is needed to demonstrate the potential long-term gains of early powered mobility access to young children with disabilities.

The three aims of this systematic review are to describe: (1) use of the term fundamental motor/movement skills (FMS) in published articles; (2) the quality of definitions; and (3) relative use of process- and product- oriented assessments to measure FMS. The inclusion criteria included: (a) peer-reviewed article, (b) printed in English, (c) published between January 2000 and 31 December 2015, (d) presence of either the term "fundamental motor or movement skill" in the title and/or abstract, and (e) FMS were a measured outcome. There has been an increase in the number of publications on FMS in recent years, with the majority of studies conducted in Australia (n = 41, 33%). Approximately 24% of studies (n = 30) did not provide any explicit definition of FMS. A majority of studies reported the use of process-oriented measures (n = 98, 79%) compared to product-oriented measures (n = 23, 19%), and few studies used both (n = 6, 5%). We recommend that researchers provide: (1) an operational definition of FMS that states FMS are the "building blocks" (or similar terminology) of more advanced, complex movements; (2) specific categories of skills that compose FMS; and (3) at least one specific example of a FMS.

Objectives Proficiency in fundamental movement skills (FMS) is positively correlated with cardiorespiratory fitness, healthy weight status, and physical activity. Many instruments have been developed to assess FMS in children. It is important to accurately measure FMS competency in adolescent populations, particularly in girls, who are less proficient than boys. Yet these tests have not been validated or tested for reliability among girls in this age group. Design The current study tested the concurrent validity and reliability of two FMS assessment instruments; the newly developed Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment (CAMSA), against the Victorian FMS Assessment from Australia, among a sample of early adolescent girls. Methods In total, 34 Year 7 females (mean age 12.6 years) from Australia were tested and retested on each instrument in a school setting. Results Test-retest reliability was excellent for the overall CAMSA score (ICC=0.91) and for the isolated time and skill score components (time: ICC=0.80; skill: ICC=0.85). Test-retest reliability of the Victorian FMS Assessment was also good (ICC=0.79). There was no evidence of proportional bias in either assessment. There was evidence of strong concurrent validity ( r s =0.68, p Conclusions Both instruments were found to be reliable and valid. However, compared to the Victorian FMS instrument, the CAMSA has the advantage of both process and product assessment, less time needed to administer and higher authenticity, and so may be an attractive alternative to the more traditional forms of FMS assessment, for use with early adolescent girls, in school settings.

Children with Down syndrome (DS) may have limited opportunities to engage in self-directed mobility and play due to motor delays. A recent modified ride-on car innovation is the sit-to-stand (STS) model, which incorporates functional standing and walking training with the experience of powered mobility.This study aimed to: (1) describe total dosage and daily usage of three modified ride-on car modes (seated, standing, and power-push) by young children with DS; (2) examine the ability of young children with DS to independently activate the modified ride-on car in seated and standing modes; (3) describe the age of onset of selected motor milestones of the sample in comparison to DS norms.Eight young children with DS (8.6 ± 2.0 months) used three modes of the modified ride-on car over a 9-month intervention.All eight children independently activated the modified ride-on car in seated and standing modes. Most motor milestones were achieved earlier in this sample than expected for DS norms, including the onset of independent walking.The developmentally progressive nature of the intervention and high dosage may have been instrumental in encouraging the onset of independent activation and earlier motor milestones.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONYoung children with Down syndrome were able to achieve independent activation in seated and standing modified ride-on cars.Developmentally progressive modified ride-on car interventions may facilitate motor skill development, but future work utilizing a randomized control group is needed to examine the potential motor developmental benefits of the STS model and power-push mode.The developmentally progressive nature of the intervention may have been instrumental in encouraging the onset of independent switch activation in both seated and standing modes, as well as the high dosage and adherence rates compared to previous studies.

Objectives To offer a user’s guide to select appropriate measures of motor competence for children and adolescents. Design Expert consensus among a working group of the International Motor Development Research Consortium (I-MDRC). Methods The guide provides information on objective (motion devices and direct observation) and subjective (self-reports and proxy reports) methods for assessing motor competence among children and adolescents. Key characteristics (age group, sample size, delivery mode, assessment time, data output, data processing) as well as limitations and practical considerations (e.g., cost, sources of error) with regard to each method are included in this paper. We do not recommend specific instruments, rather a guide to assist researchers and practitioners interested in assessing children’s motor competence. Results A decision flow chart was developed to support practitioners and researchers in selecting appropriate methods for measuring motor competence in young people. Real-life scenarios are presented to illustrate the use of different methods in research and practice. Conclusions Policy makers, practitioners and researchers should consider the strengths and limitations of each method when measuring motor competence in children and adolescents. This will allow them to choose the most appropriate instrument(s) that meets their needs.

PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to compare the physical activity and play behaviors of preschoolers without disabilities and 1 preschooler with physical disability. METHODS Participants were 42 preschoolers without disabilities and 1 preschooler with physical disability (Child A). Child A used either crutches or a modified ride-on car while in the gymnasium and playground. RESULTS In the gymnasium, Child A engaged in less solitary play and more parallel play while using the modified ride-on car compared with crutches. On the playground, Child A engaged in more sitting and less running while using crutches compared with preschoolers without disabilities. On the playground, Child A engaged in more peer interaction and less teacher interaction when using the modified ride-on car compared with crutches. CONCLUSIONS For children with disabilities who may use assistive devices, clinicians, families, and teachers are encouraged to embrace a "right device, right time, right place" approach.

The objectives of this study were to examine sex and age differences in fundamental motor skills (FMS) and to describe the prevalence of low motor proficiency and mastery competence. The Test of Gross Motor Development—Second Edition was used to assess 2,377 children (3–10 years old) from eight states and 75 schools in Brazil. The results showed that (a) boys are more proficient than girls in the majority of FMS, (b) FMS development begins to plateau at age 7, (c) low motor proficiency is present at age 10 for several FMS, and (d) mastery competence was achieved by only a small number of children. These findings suggest that increased opportunities to engage in physical activity that promotes FMS competence are needed.