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Nature-Based solutions (NBS) are the measures supported by natural processes that can adapt to changing climates and generate diverse social, economic, and environmental benefits. Recognising the potential for additional NBS benefits, and quantifying these benefits is essential as it encourages decision-makers to implement and scale-up NBS initiatives. This paper presents findings from a systematic literature review. The review focused on tools and methodologies used for assessing the environmental benefits of implementing NBS. This review provides a detailed compilation of environmental indicators supported by assessment tools. It also includes a catalogue of tools for evaluating environmental benefits, thereby identifying research gaps. Moreover, this research proposes a methodology that uses an ArcGIS (Architecture of Geographic Information Systems) toolbox to identify habitat changes resulting from the implementation of NBS. The methodology translates CORINE (Coordination of Information on the Environment) land cover classes to EUNIS (European Nature Information System) habitat classes. The developed toolbox was applied to two case studies: Denmark (12 NBS) and the Netherlands (3 NBS). The assessment aimed to compare the habitat changes between 2000 and 2018 as two extreme time points for NBS implementation for both case studies. Results indicate that NBS implementation can change habitats leading to an increase in the Red-necked Grebe population in Denmark and a decline in the Black-tailed Godwit population in the Netherlands (two threatened species). The population change highlights the potential positive and potential negative impacts of NBS in their respective cases. These findings suggest Denmark could benefit from lake construction and restoration projects. At the same time, the Netherlands could invest in wetlands and meadows construction and restoration projects to protect the respective species. They could establish designated breeding zones to ensure their population does not decline rapidly.

The rising unpredictability in the food supply chain in many parts of the world is related to soil loss and poor agricultural output. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), widely used for estimating soil loss, was applied in the western mid-hills in Nepal, with steep slopes and fragile geology. This region is at high risk for rapid soil erosion and mass wasting. To estimate soil loss, this study utilized the RUSLE model with experimental erosion plots in the Aadhikhola and Tinahukhola watersheds, capturing real-time erosion in the field. The annual soil loss for the Aadhikhola watershed is estimated at ∼41.4 tons ha−1 yr−1. In contrast, in the Tinahukhola watershed, soil loss is low (∼24.1 tons ha−1 yr−1). Although annual rainfall showed an increasing trend in both watersheds, the change in soil loss was statistically insignificant. The high erosion rates from the experimental plots in both watersheds support the model outputs. Results from the experimental plots recorded the rate of soil erosion for different land use as: irrigated agricultural land > rainfed agricultural land > forests. The trends highlight the role of human activities in enhancing soil erosion in these mountainous terrains in terms of medium to long-term perspectives. Therefore, sustainable agriculture practices in these terrains must investigate alternate ways to decrease soil erosion to support people's livelihoods.