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PurposeKnowing the students' readiness for the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) is essential to producing competent, knowledgeable and skilled graduates who can contribute to the skilled workforce in the country. This will assist the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to ensure that their graduates own skill sets needed to work in the 4IR era. However, studies on students' readiness and preparedness for the 4IR in developing countries such as the Sultanate of Oman are still lacking. Therefore, this study investigates students' readiness level and preparedness for the 4IR. The findings of this study will benefit the HEIs policymakers, administration, faculties, departments, industries and society at large since they will be informed of the student's readiness and preparedness toward industry 4.0.Design/methodology/approachThe authors adopted the measures from the same context as previous studies in this study. The questionnaire was divided into three sections; the first part described the purpose and introduction of the search with the surety to keep the data confidential. The second part consisted of demographical information like gender, education. The last parts consisted of four subsections, question items in these parts are based on the related previous study. Characteristics consisted of 14 items, knowledge consisted of 18 items related to 4IR technologies, Organizational Dimension comprised of four items related to academic programs, curriculum and training. Preparedness contained two items. The participants have rated all the items in 5-Likert scale.FindingsResults from structural equation modeling showed that students' characteristics, knowledge of 4IR technologies and organizational dimensions significantly impact their preparedness for the 4IR. The study also found that organizational dimensions have the highest impact on students' preparedness. Furthermore, the organizational dimension significantly influences students' knowledge of 4IR technology. Moreover, students' characteristics related to 4IR are significantly affected by their knowledge of 4IR technology and organizational dimension. The findings suggest that HEIs are responsible for increasing the adoption of 4IR, and therefore organizational dimensions such as the academic programs, training, technological infrastructure and others are all critical for preparing students for a better future and should be given a priority.Research limitations/implicationsThis study has used academic programs and training to measure the organizational dimension. However, other important factors should be considered, such as technological infrastructure and leadership and governance of HEIs. Second, the current research depends on quantitative data, so future research should implement a mixed methodology (questionnaires, depth interviews, document analysis and focus group) to understand the factors affecting students' readiness for 4IR clearly. Finally, although the 4IR has numerous benefits, it also has challenges in its implementation, so future studies should focus on challenges encountered by different stakeholders in implementing 4IR-related technologies.Practical implicationsThe curriculum must include mandatory courses related to IT infrastructure design, user experience programming, electronic measurement and control principles, and programming for data science. HEIs should also foster interdisciplinary knowledge by integrating IT, Engineering, Business and Sciences. Furthermore, the HEIs should develop their infrastructure to have smart campuses, labs, classrooms and libraries to make HEIs a space where knowledge can be generated and innovative solutions can be proposed. This entails HEIs offering necessary hardware, software and technical support because if the HEIs improve their technological resources, students will be capable of using 4IR-related technologies effectively.Originality/valueThe advancement of technology has resulted in the emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, robotics, cloud computing, data science, virtual reality and 3D printing. It is essential to investigate students' readiness for 4IR. However, there is no study as per researchers' knowledge talked about students readiness in HEIs in the Arab world. This study could be a basis for more research on students' perception of the 4IR covering students from various backgrounds and levels.

Background Phenolic compounds in date palm fruit (dates) contribute to the color, antioxidant activity, and nutritional value of the fruit. This study aimed to compare the accuracy of the Folin–Ciocalteu, 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS.+), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) methods for measuring the total antioxidant activity of date fruit extracts. Methods A total of 26 date varieties from the United Arab Emirates and Pakistan that varied in color and shape were analyzed in terms of their total phenolic content and antioxidant activity using the Folin–Ciocalteu, ABTS.+, FRAP, and DPPH methods. Two extracts were obtained from each date variety to study the soluble and insoluble phenolic fractions. Results The total phenolic content varied 46–397 mg GAE/100 g fresh weight (FW) using the Folin–Ciocalteu method, 0.9–4.3 μmol TE/100 g FW using ABTS.+, 355–2421 μmol TE/100 g FW using FRAP, and 0.0–1.8 mg/mL using DPPH. These results suggest large variations in total phenolic content and antioxidant activity among the date varieties. However, the results of the four total antioxidant activity assays were not correlated with each other and exhibited large disparity. Conclusions These findings put in question the ability of these total antioxidant activity assays to accurately assess the phenolic compounds of dates.

The effect of different concentrations of low methoxyl pectin (LMP) on lipid oxidation and physical stability of sodium caseinate (CAS) stabilized nanoemulsions under neutral pH was investigated. The addition of pectin at low concentration (≤ 0.10 wt%) had no significant effect on the average size of nanoemulsions, but a slight size increase and phase separation were observed at higher concentrations of pectin (≥ 0.25 wt%). This result suggests that LMP can not adsorb at the oil/water interfacial CAS membrane at neutral pH. However, in the presence of LMP, the physical stability of nanoemulsions against high salt concentrations and freeze-thaw cycles was significantly enhanced. Moreover, nanoemulsions containing pectin have a better ability to inhibit lipid and protein oxidation than nanoemulsions without pectin after 3 weeks, and the lowest lipid hydroperoxide content was observed for nanoemulsions containing 0.25 wt% pectin.

Multi-layer biodegradable active packaging is a new class of innovative food packaging containing bioactive compounds that are able to maintain food quality and extend shelf life preservation by releasing an active agent during storage. In this context, this study aims to develop and characterize three-layer biodegradable active films: 2 outer layers of ethylcellulose (EC) and a layer internal pectin containing nanoemulsions (NE) of trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC) as an antimicrobial agent. Trans-cinnamaldehyde (NE) nanoemulsions were prepared with soy lecithin as an agent. emulsifier to stabilize the TC and protect it for the duration of the film manufacturing. The average size and the zeta potential of the nanoemulsion droplets were 103.93 nm and -46 mV, respectively. The opacity of samples of monolayer and multilayer films decreased by 15.19 (A*mm-1) for the monolayer film of pectin incorporated by nanocapsules at 2.02 for multilayer films. In addition, the multilayer technique has made it possible to improve the mechanical properties of the films compared to monolayers with greater resistance breakage and greater extensibility. Inhibition tests on four bacteria representatives of bacteria pathogens and spoilage found in food industries have confirmed the antimicrobial activity, both, mono and multilayers. The work presented in this study offers perspectives for the fabrication packaging based on antimicrobial and biodegradable multilayer films.

International audience; In this study, the physical properties and antibacterial activity of emulsions prepared through four different combinations of essential oils (EOs) (trans-cinnamaldehyde [TC] and citral) and emulsifiers (sodium caseinate and lecithin) were investigated. The results showed that the four different nanoemulsions had nanometric sizes ranging from 142.3 to 273.1 nm, exhibiting high negative zeta potential (-25.3 to -42.7 mV) at pH 7. Nanoemulsions containing TC exhibited higher antimicrobial activities against Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua than nanoemulsions containing citral irrespective of the emulsifier used. These nanoemulsions were then incorporated into low methoxyl pectin films and the obtained results showed that films containing TC stabilized by sodium caseinate had a larger inhibition zone than the one stabilized by lecithin irrespective of the EO used. Finally, the obtained results showed that nanosized emulsions were more stable than microsized ones, but no significant differences were observed concerning their antibacterial activity. Practical applications This work should be an interesting basis for developing innovative antimicrobial packaging containing nanoemulsions. The interfacial membrane that surrounds the droplets of the emulsified antimicrobial provides an additional barrier that the active agent should cross before leaving the polymer matrix of the packaging film. Thus, the release kinetics will be modified and the efficiency could be improved.

International audience; The global demand for safe and healthy food with minimal synthetic preservatives is continuously increasing. Natural food antimicrobials and especially essential oils (EOs) possess strong antimicrobial activities that could play a remarkable role as a novel source of food preservatives. Despite the excellent efficacy of EOs, they have not been widely used in the food industry due to some major intrinsic barriers, such as low water solubility, bioavailability, volatility, and stability in food systems. Recent advances in nanotechnology have the potential to address these existing barriers in order to use EOs as preservatives in food systems at low doses. Thus, in this review, we explored the latest advances of using natural actives as antimicrobial agents and the different strategies for nanoencapsulation used for this purpose. The state of the art concerning the antibacterial properties of EOs will be summarized, and the main latest applications of nanoencapsulated antimicrobial agents in food systems will be presented. This review should help researchers to better choose the most suitable encapsulation techniques and materials.

International audience

International audience; In this study, the impact of different contents of medium-chain triacylglycerols (MCT) and long-chain triacylglycerols (LCT) as carrier oils mixed with trans-cinnamaldehyde (TCA) on the properties of sodium caseinate-stabilized nanoemulsions was investigated. The obtained results showed that the use of a carrier oil improves significantly the TCA emulsion stability, which can be attributed to a reduction of TCA solubility in the aqueous phase followed by a decrease of Ostwald ripening. This stability improvement was observed at different pHs (3, 7 and 11), salt concentrations (0–300 mmol/L), and temperature (4, 25, 60, and 80 °C). However, the carrier oil type (MCT or LCT) did not show any significant effect on the nanoemulsions properties whatever the environmental conditions. Antibacterial testing revealed that the addition of carrier oil increased the antibacterial activity of TCA against Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua. These results are useful for expanding the application of TCA as food preservative in food industry.

The energy balance and life cycle assessment (LCA) of ohmic heating and appertization systems for processing of chopped tomatoes with juice (CTwJ) were evaluated. The data included in the study, such as processing conditions, energy consumption, and water use, were experimentally collected. The functional unit was considered to be 1 kg of packaged CTwJ. Six LCA impact assessment methodologies were evaluated for uncertainty analysis of selection of the impact assessment methodology. The energy requirement evaluation showed the highest energy consumption for appertization (156 kWh/t of product). The energy saving of the ohmic heating line compared to the appertization line is 102 kWh/t of the product (or 65% energy saving). The energy efficiencies of the appertization and ohmic heating lines are 25% and 77%, respectively. Regarding the environmental impact, CTwJ processing and packaging by appertization were higher than those of ohmic heating systems. In other words, CTwJ production by the ohmic heating system was more environmentally efficient. The tin production phase was the environmental hotspot in packaged CTwJ production by the appertization system; however, the agricultural phase of production was the hotspot in ohmic heating processing. The uncertainty analysis results indicated that the global warming potential for appertization of 1 kg of packaged CTwJ ranges from 4.13 to 4.44 kg CO2eq. In addition, the global warming potential of the ohmic heating system ranges from 2.50 to 2.54 kg CO2eq. This study highlights that ohmic heating presents a great alternative to conventional sterilization methods due to its low environmental impact and high energy efficiency.

Date fruits vary widely in the hardness of their edible parts and they are classified accordingly into soft, semi-dry, and dry varieties. Fruit texture, a significant parameter in determining consumer acceptance, is related to the tissue structure and chemical composition of the fruit, mainly the ratio of sucrose to reducing sugars. This study aimed to understand the relationship between the chemical composition, microstructure, and texture profile of 10 major Emirati date fruits. The soluble sugars, glucose and fructose, represent ca 80 g/100 g of the fruits on the basis of dry weight (DW) while the dietary fiber contents varied 5.2–7.4 g/100 dg D.W. with lignin being the main determinant of the variability. The textures of the samples were studied using instrumental texture profile analysis. While no correlation was found between the soluble sugar and texture parameters in this study, the different fiber constituents correlated variably with the different parameters of date fruit texture. Lignin, arabinoxylan, galactomannan, and pectin were found to correlate significantly with fruit hardness and the related parameters, gumminess and chewiness. Both lignin and arabinoxylan correlated with resilience, and arabinoxylan exhibited a strong correlation with cohesiveness.

Milk is an important source of energy and a wide range of vital nutrients, but can also harbor a variety of microorganisms that can be important sources of foodborne diseases. Storage conditions and poor processing of raw milk can lead to spoilage and reduced food safety. Indeed, the role of milk fermentation is to mitigate the impact of these conditions by enhancing shelf life and food safety. Traditional fermented dairy products are widely distributed in Morocco and rely on product specific microbiota responsible for texture, aroma and flavor. Therefore, the knowledge of indigenous microbiota of Moroccan raw milk and fermented dairy products can be of great interest in preservation of Moroccan traditional dairy products. The traditional dairy products included in this review are Lben (a fermented milk), Rayeb (a coagulated fermented milk), Zebda beldiya (a raw fresh butter), Smen (a fermented butter), and Jben (a fresh cheese). Other products were referred as Lfrik (a fermented camel milk) and Klila (a hard cheese). Little information is available on the general characteristics and processing practices of these traditional fermented dairy products. Therefore, this review will provide a brief overview of available data about artisanal dairy products preparation, and physicochemical and microbiological characteristics.

Nigella sativa oil (NSO), extracted from seeds of Nigella sativa, is widely used in traditional medicine and foodstuffs around the world because oil is rich in a variety of phytochemicals. Nigella sativa essential oil (NSEO) is regarded as a promising trend to get more functional benefits from NSO, which can be obtained by distillation methods. Thymoquinone, thymohydroquinone, p-cymene, carvacrol and t-anethole are the main components of NSEO. These active compounds, especially thymoquinone, showed antioxidants, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities with low toxicity, which have been considered a useful source of food applications. NSEO are, nowadays, still used in food in limited forms due to their low water solubility, high volatility and strong organoleptic properties. However, encapsulation technology could tackle these challenges. Thus, the ambition of this chapter is to provide an overview of NSEO and its advantageous properties usage on the food applications. Furthermore, the biological activities of NSEO and encapsulated NSEO in addition to its technological and potential utilization in food will be presented.

This study evaluated the influence of supplementing bovine milk with increasing levels of camel milk (0–60%) on different properties of yogurt. Fresh raw camel and bovine milks were heated separately at 85 °C for 5 min and mixed before fermentation with lactic acid bacteria. The decrease in gel strength after camel milk addition caused a decrease in viscosity and related parameters including G', G", stringiness, and syneresis. The Bostwick consistency values increased with increasing proportions of camel milk providing further evidence that the produced yogurts are less viscous and have higher water holding capacity and lower gel contraction during storage. Scanning electron micrographs showed that the addition of camel milk to bovine milk led to larger and less differentiated casein micelles. After fermentation, the pH of all yogurts was 4.5–4.6 and it decreased to 4.3 after 2 weeks of storage suggesting that the soft gels caused by the addition of camel milk is due to the structure and concentration of its proteins rather than limitations related to bacterial growth. The results obtained in this work are of particular interest especially in the understanding of how variation in milk protein composition may affect its gelation properties.

This study is a comparative evaluation of three approaches to biofuel production from energy crops including biogas, bioethanol and biodiesel to ascertain which one is the most effective and more energy-efficient than the others. Moreover, the potential of biofuel production from the best option was studied. For this purpose, biogas generation from corn silage, bioethanol generation from corn, and biodiesel production from peanuts in Iran (as a case study) were studied. The results revealed that 10,683.36 m3 of biogas, 2.53 m3 of bioethanol and 0.70 m3 of biodiesel could be produced per each hectare of energy crops. The total greenhouse gas emissions for each MJ energy generation of biogas, bioethanol and biodiesel were 0.01, 0.04 and 0.03 kgCO2eq, respectively. Accordingly, the total annual biogas potential from corn silage (as the best option) in Iran is 3953.74 million m3, which is equivalent to 1515.94 million barrels of oil.

In this work, we observed the effect of grape juice (% concentrated juice/% concentrated camel milk: GJ20/80, GJ50/50) and pomegranate juice (PJ20/80, PJ40/60) fortification on camel milk (CM) protein solubility and digestibility. Proteins were dissolved in sodium phosphate buffer to 50 mg/ml and defatted prior Bradford assay of protein concentration, then analyzed by Size Exclusion-Ultra High-Performance Liquid chromatography (SE-UHPLC). The CM protein aggregation and their stability were further monitored at different pH 2.0, 4.0, and 7.5 via sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Freeze dried CM (FDCM) was the reference sample and our results showed that GJ50/50 and PJ40/60 with the highest fruit juice ratio had the lowest protein content in the supernatant, hence the decreased solubility. SE-UHPLC of supernatants showed a slight decrease in retention times of 11 kDa and 62 kDa proteins for GJ50/50 and PJ40/60 suggesting a possibility of adduct formation due to fortification leading to higher molecular weight. The simulated static in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of samples revealed that most soluble proteins were readily digested by pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin enzymes leading to small peptides. However, the SDS PAGE of pellets showed the partial resistance of casein and α-lactalbumin against peptic digestion. Supplementary material: [https://cherry.chem.bg.ac.rs/handle/123456789/4747]

The consumption of omega-3 fatty acids provides a wide range of health benefits. However, the incorporation of these fatty acids in foods is limited because of their high oxidative instability. A new paradigm has emerged to better explain the oxidation mechanism of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which will be discussed here with reference to bulk lipids considered a special case of water in oil microemulsion. This paradigm suggests that lipid oxidation reactions are initiated by heterogeneous catalysis by metal oxides followed by the formation of micelles containing initial hydroperoxides, water, and other amphiphilic compounds. The induction period comes to the end when the formed micelles reach a critical micelle concentration and start to decompose opening the way to intense free radical reactions. Antioxidants and synergists extend the induction period not only by scavenging free radicals but also by stabilizing the micelles. With better understanding of the lipid oxidation mechanism, a tailored choice of antioxidants and synergistic combinations, and efficient encapsulation methods may be optimized to provide stable encapsulates containing highly n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Smart processing and encapsulation technologies utilizing properly stabilized oils as well as optimized packaging parameters aiming to enhance n-3 fatty acid stability by smart selection/design of antioxidants, control of the interfacial physics and chemistry, and elimination of surface oil are needed for this purpose.

Iran is the fourth biggest producer of crude oil and natural gas in the world. Meanwhile, this country is the largest CO2 emitter among the Middle East countries and 99% of energy in this country i...

International audience; This work aims to encapsulate nisin by complexation with exopolysaccharides (EPS), produced by Bacillus tequilensis-GM and Leuconostoc citreum-BMS, namely EPS-GM and EPS-BMS, respectively, using spray-drying technique, and to evaluate the effect of this encapsulation on the structure of nisin. Results related to suspensions turbidity showed that EPS/nisin complexes were formed through electrostatic attractions. These interactions were confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of the spray-dried complexes revealed the presence of well-separated spherical microcapsules. Besides, results obtained by UV spectra showed that no significant changes occurred on EPS-GM/nisin microcapsules suggesting that this EPS may act as protective agent of nisin structure against spray-drying conditions.

The Impact Assessment (IA) step in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies is classified into three steps of characterization, normalization and weighting. In this research, various impact categories were weighted using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), as a multi criteria decision making tool. Iranian tobacco production system was the example of agricultural system. The data for LCA analysis were collected from 225 farms. The data for AHP analysis were gathered by surveying 12 LCA experts. The results indicated that on-farm emissions of CO2, CH4, N2O, NH3, NOx and SO2 were accounted for 25, 96, 93, 99, 21 and 2% of the total emissions (cradle to farm gate), respectively. The characterization indices for the impact categories of acidification, terrestrial eutrophication, global warming, phosphate resources depletion, potash resources depletion and fossil resources depletion for one ton tobacco production were calculated to be 13.87 kgSO2eq, 19.69 kgNOxeq, 1883.90 kgCO2eq, 19.69 kgNOxeq, 4.19 kgP2O5, 6.14 kgK2O, and 59,659.23 MJ, respectively. The LCA + AHP showed that the weighted factors of global warming, terrestrial eutrophication, acidification, fossil resources depletion, phosphate resources depletion and potash resources depletion were 1, 0.790, 0.518, 0.681, 0.422, and 0.263, respectively. Many agricultural systems could benefit from using the developed weighting factors for LCA studies in the agricultural sector. Based on the new developed weighted factors, the weighted indices of aforementioned impact categories for Iranian tobacco production were 0.24, 0.41, 0.19, 1.04, 0.23, and 0.20, respectively. This implies that fossil resources depletion impact category was attributed the highest negative environmental impacts of tobacco production followed by terrestrial eutrophication.

Energy flow and environmental impact are the key factors toward sustainable development of agricultural production. The objective of the current study is to optimize the energy consumption and assess the environmental impacts of arecanut production. The data were collected from 70 arecanut producers from the Goa state of India. The environmental impacts were investigated with a cradle to gate perspective; using, raw materials extraction, manufacture, use, and supply of inputs to the farm. The functional units considered were one tonne of arecanut production (mass-based) and 1-ha area of arecanut (land-based). The data envelopment analysis indicated the average technical efficiency of arecanut farms as 0.89, implying the potential of saving the resources to the tune of 11% with a mean economic saving of 413 $ ha−1 year−1 without reducing the arecanut yield. Human labor, irrigation, manures, and chemical fertilizers were the major energy consumers in the system. The life cycle assessment indicated on-farm emissions as the hotspot for the respiratory inorganics, terrestrial acid/nutria, and aquatic acidification impact categories. Arecanut production had the highest negative impact on human health followed by ecosystem quality. The global warming potential of arecanut production works out to be 959.87 and 2399.25 kg CO2 eq. per tonne and per hectare basis, respectively. In conclusion, efficient use of inputs in synchrony with crop requirement, advance irrigation methods, and efficient machinery usage may be adopted to curtail the environmental impact of arecanut production in the region.

Samples of nine home-made, commercial Chami cheese samples were analyzed for chemical composition, texture, and rheology. The samples showed large variations in moisture, protein, fat, ash, mineral contents, and pH values. Fat content, fatty acid composition, and differential scanning calorimetry analyses suggested addition of extra fat in some samples either butter or vegetable oil. The sodium content in the 9 cheese samples varied from 223-2411 mg/kg with three samples having very high contents 1756, 2024, and 2411 mg/kg indicative of added salt. The sample with the low moisture content (60.9%) was the hardest among the cheeses. Rheological examination showed the Chami cheese samples of more elastic than viscous behavior.

International audience

Date varieties grown in the United Arab Emirates have not been characterized previously as per quality descriptive parameters, which are important for the commercial viability and processing. In this study, 29 analytical and descriptive parameters including morphological date variables (fruit and seed weight, length, volume, diameter, and density), chemical (reducing sugars, organic acids) and textural properties (hardness, adhesive force, resilience, fracturability, and springiness), and color (lightness, redness, yellowness) were investigated for their efficacy in classifying 20 Emirati date varieties at the mature Tamr stage. Chemometric multivariate analysis of the 29 physical–chemical traits of date varieties allowed selection of three traits that were decisive for clustering of samples with similar characteristics. Date fruit color, size, and concentration of malic acid appeared to be the most important parameters for distinguishing date fruits into three homogeneous groups: (i) class 1 (darker color and higher malic acid content), (ii) class 2 (moderate malic acid content and light color), and (iii) class 3 (larger fruits and low malic acid content). The results of this study will guide further studies aiming to explore the relationships between the chemical and physical quality parameters of date fruit, including organic acids and pigments, and fruit color that are identified as the most important fruit classification parameters.

In this study, the variability in 23 physicochemical properties related to fruit size, color, texture, and taste (sugars and organic aids) was investigated in 21 date varieties grown in UAE. The results revealed extensive variation with some traits displaying high coefficient of variations, e.g. fruit and flesh weights (33.0% and 35.8%), red/green and yellow/blue colors (43.3% and 55.6%), organic acids (31.7–40.5%), and texture profile variables (hardness cycles 1 and 2, adhesive force, fracturability, and springiness, 27.0–68.6%). Total reducing sugars, being the main components in date fruits varied 52.1–62.8 g/100 g fruit weight with smaller variation between cultivars (6.2%). The variability observed here for the date fruits is complex and deserves more elaborate studies focussing on the link between physicochemical parameters and other chemical components especially moisture, fibers, and phenolic compounds and other pigments. Keywords: Date fruit, Phoenix dactylifera, Sugars, Organic acids, Size, Color, Texture

Nowadays, there has been significant interest in producing appealing and healthy processed food. Several studies emphasize on the benefits of agricultural products in preventing and controlling different diseases such as cataract, cancer, scurvy, andheart disease (Alasalvar and Shahidi 2012, Grosch and Schieberle 2009, Hui and Barta 2006, Joshi et al. 2011, Kumar et al. 2016b). As living standards keep improving, people are becoming increasingly concerned about their well-being and thus favor foods with potential health benefits (Rohr et al. 2005). Food is essential for human sustainability and development, by its contribution to macronutrients (such as fiber, polysaccharide, carbohydrate, protein, lipid) and micronutrients (namely, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants such as vitamin C, β-carotene, lycopene, lutein, flavonoids, and anthocyanins) (Alasalvar and Shahidi 2012, Hui and Barta 2006). The great diversity of food materials leads to the wide variety of sensory characteristics in term of taste, aroma, color, and texture and different ways of preparation make them widely accepted by consumers...

The consumption of omega-3 fatty acids provides a wide range of health benefits. However, the incorporation of these fatty acids in foods is limited because of their high oxidative instability. A new paradigm has emerged to better explain the oxidation mechanism of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which will be discussed here with reference to bulk lipids considered a special case of water in oil microemulsion. This paradigm suggests that lipid oxidation reactions are initiated by heterogeneous catalysis by metal oxides followed by the formation of micelles containing initial hydroperoxides, water, and other amphiphilic compounds. The induction period comes to the end when the formed micelles reach a critical micelle concentration and start to decompose opening the way to intense free radical reactions. Antioxidants and synergists extend the induction period not only by scavenging free radicals but also by stabilizing the micelles. With better understanding of the lipid oxidation mechanism, a tailored choice of antioxidants and synergistic combinations, and efficient encapsulation methods may be optimized to provide stable encapsulates containing highly n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Smart processing and encapsulation technologies utilizing properly stabilized oils as well as optimized packaging parameters aiming to enhance n-3 fatty acid stability by smart selection/design of antioxidants, control of the interfacial physics and chemistry, and elimination of surface oil are needed for this purpose.