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Abstract The present study aimed to identify pigments used in writing and decorating a Qur'an manuscript related to the early years of the Qajar era, a royal dynasty ruling over Iran from 1789 to 1925. The pigments were analysed using µ-XRF, SEM–EDS, Raman, and FTIR spectroscopy. Also, various technical photography methods were used to study the pigments including visible-reflected (VIS), infrared photography (IR), ultraviolet-reflected (UVR), and ultraviolet-induced visible luminescence (UVL) along with infrared false color (IRFC) and ultraviolet false color (UVFC) methods. Carbon black, red lead, and indigo were identified as black ink, orange, and blue pigments, respectively. A mixture of red lead and vermilion was also detected in the red/orange ink. White lead and calcite were also used as additives in blue color. A cochineal-based pigment was also used as red ink in some parts of the manuscript. However, the evaluation of golden color showed two types pigments of gold and brass alloys in different parts of the manuscript. Copper carboxylate was identified as the product of the destruction of this pigment. According to the results of the study, technical photography methods along with spectroscopic methods are a good tool to examine manuscripts and identify included pigments and reduce the amount of possible error and the need for destructive sampling.

The aim of this study was to identify the nature and cause of foxing spots in a historical manuscript. This manuscript was a Holy Quran from the beginning of the Qajar period and the end of the 18th century. Samples were incubated for 14 days and were evaluated for the presence of fungal activity. UV fluorescence photography, micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were also used to investigate the characteristics and causes of foxing spots. The results showed that there was no fungal activity in the foxing spots of this manuscript. Based on the morphology of the stain in UV fluorescence photography, these foxing stains are of the Bullseye type, usually associated with metal ions. µXRF spectroscopy also showed a high accumulation of iron and copper at the site of these spots. This indicates abiotic foxing in this manuscript. Based on FTIR spectroscopy and peak deconvolution and fitting by Gaussian function, abiotic foxing increases the cellulose oxidation rate. Intensification of cellulose oxidation in foxing stains can be considered as one of the reasons for paper discoloration.