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Background/Aim. Plant essential oils (EOs) can have a significant antibacterial effect especially through additive or synergistic action as antibiotic adjuvants. We investi-gated the composition and activity of EOs of two species of genus Salvia (S) from Greece with the aim to deter-mine their antimicrobial activity as well as the activity in combination with selected antibiotics. Methods. The aerial parts of wild-growing S. fruticosa and S. ringens were subjected to a steam distillation and the obtained EOs were analyzed by gas chromatography and gas chroma-tography/mass spectrometry. The broth-microdilution method was used in order to determine the minimum in-hibitory concentrations (MICs) of EOs on seven strains of bacteria and one yeast. Antimicrobial activity of the combination of EO and antibiotics was investigated by checkerboard method and estimated by calculating frac-tional inhibitory concentration (FIC) of each component and fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI). Re-sults. Dominant component of S. fruticosa EO was trans-thujone (54.2%) and for S. ringens EO it was α-pinene (28.1%). The MICs of EOs of both species were in the range from 200 μg/mL to > 500 μg/mL. The strongest antimicrobial effect was achieved against Bacillus subtilis and Candida albicans. According to FICI values, EO of S. fruticosa had additive effect with ciprofloxacin against most of bacterial strains but not with amikacin. Conclu-sion. The essential oils of S. ringens and S. fruticosa showed modest antimicrobial activity. However, the es-sential oil of S. fruticosa showed a promising additive ef-fect in combination with ciprofloxacin. Uvod/Cilj. Etarska ulja različitih biljaka mogu imati značajna antibakterijska svojstva, posebno kao adjuvanti antibiotika sa kojima ostvaruju aditivno ili sinergistično dejstvo. Ispitivali smo sastav i aktivnost etarskih ulja dve vrste roda Salvia (S) iz Grčke sa ciljem da odredimo njihovu antimkrobnu aktivnost, kao i dejstvo u kombi-naciji sa odabranim antibioticima. Metode. Nadzemni delovi samoniklih S. fruticosa i S. ringens su destilovani vodenom parom i dobijena etarska ulja su analizirana gasnom hromatografijom i gasnom hromatografijom sa masenom spektrometrijom. Radi određivanja minimalnih inhibitornih koncentracija (MICs) etarskog ulja na sedam sojeva bakterija i na jednoj patogenoj gljivici korišćena je mikrodiluciona metoda. Antimikrobna aktivnost kombi-nacije etarskog ulja i antibiotika ispitana je checkerboard metodom i procenjena je na osnovu frakcione inhibi-torne koncentracije (FIC) svake komponente i indeksa frakcione inhibitorne koncentracije (FICI). Resultati. Dominantna komponenta etarskog ulja S. fruticosa je bio trans-tujon (54,2%), a etarskog ulja S. ringens α-pinen (28,1%). MICs etarskog ulja obe vrste su bile u opsegu od 200 μg/mL do > 500 μg/mL. Najsnažnija anti-mikrobna aktivnost ostvarena je protiv Bacillus subtilis i Candida albicans. Na osnovu FICI vrednosti, etarsko ulje S. fruticosa je sa ciprofloksacinom, ali ne i sa amikacinom imalo aditivni efekat protiv većine bakterijskih sojeva. Zaključak. Etarska ulja S. ringens i S. fruticosa su pokazala skromnu antimikrobnu aktivnost, ali je etarsko ulje S. fru-ticosa u kombinaciji sa ciprofloksacinom ispoljilo značajan aditivni efekat.

Sages are medicinal and aromatic plants that constitute a large pool from which active compounds of great pharmaceutical potential can be derived, while at the same time, they also have ornamental value. The purpose of this study was to develop the micropropagation protocols of Salvia fruticosa, S. officinalis, S. ringens, S. tomentosa, and S. pomifera ssp. pomifera to facilitate their exploitation in the pharmaceutical and floriculture industries. In vitro cultures of S. ringens and S. pomifera ssp. pomifera was studied for the first time. Shoot tips and single node explants from in vitro seedlings were initially cultured on hormone free (Hf)-MS medium, followed by subcultures on MS medium supplemented with 6-benzyladenine (BA) for all species, as well as with zeatin (ZEA), kinetin (KIN), 6-(γ,γ-dimethylallyamino) purine (2iP), or meta-topolin (mT) for S. fruticosa and S. officinalis, at concentrations 0.0 to 3.2 mg L−1, in combination with 0.01 mg L−1 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). S. officinalis was the most efficient in shoot multiplication of all the studied species. The highest multiplication indices were found using 0.8 mg L−1 BA for S. fruticosa, 0.4 mg L−1 BA, or mT for S. officinalis, and lower than 0.8 mg L−1 BA for the other three species. Hyperhydricity was a problem at the multiplication stage, and was most pronounced in single node explants, increasing in proportion to cytokinin concentration. Microshoots rooted at high percentages (75–85%) on half-strength MS medium with 0.0 or 0.5 mg L−1 Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), except for those of S. ringens, which rooted best at 1.0–2.0 mg L−1 IBA. Ex vitro acclimatization was highly successful (80–95%) on peat–perlite substrate (1:1 v/v). Thus, the present study resulted in efficient micropropagation protocols for five Mediterranean sage species native to Greece, which will facilitate breeding programs and the promotion of these species in the floriculture and pharmaceutical industries.

Aiming to obtain Salvia hybrids with ornamental value and high drought resistance, for xeriscaping, crossbreeding was made with Greek Salvia species. S. fruticosa and S. officinalis when used as seed parent were successfully crossed with S. pomifera ssp. pomifera, S. ringens and S. tomentosa, while when used as pollen parent it only succeeded between S. fruticosa and S. tomentosa. The growth of S. fruticosa and the four hybrids, S. officinalis × S. pomifera, S. officinalis × S. tomentosa, S. officinalis × S. ringens and S. fruticosa × S. ringens, selected for their ornamental traits, was evaluated under limited irrigation and modification of the substrate with attapulgite clay. The hybrids S. officinalis × S. ringens and S. officinalis × S. tomentosa developed a compact plant shape and most lateral shoots, desirable characteristics for potted plants and xeriscaping. All hybrids, especially S. officinalis × S. pomifera and S. officinalis × S. tomentosa, survived water stress better than S. fruticosa. Modification of the substrate with attapulgite, under limited irrigation, caused a decrease in the above ground/root biomass ratio in some hybrids and in S. fruticosa increased the dry weight of the root indicating increased drought resistance.

Native-to-Greece sage species, namely, Salvia fruticosa, S. officinalis, S. pomifera ssp. pomifera, S. ringens, S. tomentosa and interspecific hybrids, were evaluated for their acclimatization in an extensive Mediterranean green roof during summer under regular and reduced irrigation (every 2–3 days with substrate moisture 16–22% v/v and 4–5 days with substrate moisture 7–11% v/v, respectively). A substrate (grape-marc compost:perlite:pumice, 3:3:4, v/v) that was 10 cm deep was used. Regardless of the irrigation frequency, S. pomifera ssp. pomifera × S. ringens and S. officinalis × S. pomifera ssp. pomifera showed the highest survival of all hybrids and species, along with satisfactory growth, while S. fruticosa showed the lowest survival. Reduced irrigation resulted in the reduction of aboveground and root biomass, with no damage to the photosynthetic apparatus. S. fruticosa showed the highest (53%) aboveground biomass reduction and S. officinalis, S. officinalis × S. ringens and S. pomifera ssp. pomifera × S. ringens showed the lowest (28, 23 and 3%, respectively), while S. officinalis × S. pomifera ssp. pomifera and S. pomifera ssp. pomifera × S. ringens showed the lowest reduction in root biomass (13 and 16%, respectively). With a reservation for S. fruticosa, Greek Salvia spp. and their interspecific hybrids studied in the present work are recommended for sustainable exploitation in extensive green roofs in arid regions and generally in xeriscaping.

Investigations have been made to study the production of phenolic compounds (total phenolics, flavonoids and phenylpropanoids) and total antioxidant capacity in 27 Macedonian traditional medicinal plants to improve its potential as a source of natural antioxidants. Antioxidant potential of plant extracts was analyzed by five different assays: cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), phosphomolybdenum method (PM), reducing power (RP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH·) and 2,2′-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS·+) radical scavenging activity. Origanum vulgare extract consistently exhibited the highest content of phenolic compounds and the strongest antioxidant capacity based on the tests performed, and can be proposed as a promising source of natural antioxidants. Melissa officinalis and Salvia ringens were also identified as valuable sources of antioxidant compounds. A positive linear correlation between antioxidant activity and total phenolics, flavonoids and phenylpropanoids indicates that these compounds are likely to be the main antioxidants contributing to the observed activities of evaluated plants. These findings suggest that the medicinal plants studied in this paper are good sources of bioactive compounds for the food and pharmaceutical industries.

The constituents of essential oils, obtained from different aerial parts (leaves and flowers) of Salvia ringens Sibth. et Sm. growing wild in Bulgaria, have been analyzed by GC-MS. The yields of leaves and flowers oils were similar (0.03 % v/w and 0.04 % v/w). 60 compounds were identified in both oils, which correspond to 97.7 % and 97.3 % of the total oils constituents for leaves and flower oils, respectively. Both leaves and flowers oils showed similar chemical compositions, with predominance of camphor (17.2 % and 18.8 %) and borneol (7.2 % and 8.7 %). Further analyses of minor component distributions proves that the both leaves and flowers could be equally used as a raw material for obtaining of camphor reach essential oil from Salvia ringens Sibth. et Sm.

In this chapter we provide evidences that genus Salvia is alternative ecological niche for isolation of lactic acid microbiota with new metabolic activities and characteristics, with subsequent potential possibility for in situ cultivation in milk, in order to produce fermented dairy products with beneficial effects. For the first time we describe Salvia scabiosifolia Lam., Salvia ringens Sibth. & Sm., Salvia officinalis L. and Salvia blepharophylla Brandegee ex Epling as potential sources for isolation of various types of plant-derived lactic acid bacteria, belonging to the genus Lactococcus, Enterococcus and Streptococcus, unlike the species Salvia tomentosa Mill.

Ovo istraživanje je sprovedeno u cilju dobijanja podataka o mikromorfološkim, anatomskim i hemijskim karakteristikama i biološkim dejstvima tri vrste žalfija iz Makedonije (Salvia amplexicaulis, S. jurisicii i S. ringens). Uzorci navedenih vrsta potvrgnuti su mikromorfološkim, anatomskim i citološkim analizama po prvi put, a zatim je sprovedeno sveobuhvatno ispitivanje hemijskog sastava i antioksidativne, antimikrobne, citotoksične i antineurodegenerativne aktivnosti njihovih etarskih ulja i ekstrakata. Mikromorfološke, anatomske i citološke analize vegetativnih i generativnih organa odabranih biljaka izvedene su upotrebom svetlosne i elektronske mikroskopije (skenirajuće i transmisione). Analizirane vrste poseduju bifacijalne, hipostromatične ili amfistomatične listove sa stomama paracitnog tipa i kolenhimom distribuiranim uz glavni nerv na abaksijalnoj strani. S. jurisicii i S. amplexicaulis poseduju četvorougaona, a S. ringens okruglo stablo. Vegetativni i generativni organi analiziranih vrsta nose raznovrsne neglandularne i glandularne - peltatne, kapitatne i digitiformne trihome. Broj ćelija sekretorne glavice pelatnih trihoma je varirao među analiziranim vrstama. „Niske“ kapitatne trihome (Tip I) su uočene kod sve tri vrste, dok su „visoke“ kapitatne trihome (Tip II) bile prisutne samo na cvetnim delovima S. ringens. Digitiformne trihome su nađene na listovima S. ringens i S. jurisicii. Orašice S. jurisicii i S. ringens su bile sferičnog, a S. amplexicaulis prolatno-sferičnog oblika, dok je ornamentacija površine orašica sve tri vrste okarakterisana kao retikulatna. Sitnije orašice S. amplexicaulis i S. jurisicii su osluznjavale nakon 15 minuta, a krupnije orašice S. ringens tek nakon 45 minuta. S. ringens poseduje heksakolpatna, radijalno simetrična i izopolarna polenova zrna, prolatnog oblika i sa biretikulatnom ornamentacijom egzine. U bazi plodnika S. ringens su uočljive floralne nektarije u obliku prstena... This study was carried out in order to obtain data on anatomical, micromorphological and phytochemical characteristics as well as biological activities of three sage species originating from Macedonia (Salvia amplexicaulis, S. jurisicii and S. ringens). Plant material of these species was analyzed from anatomical, micromorphological and cytological point of view for the first time. Subsequently, their essential oils and extracts were subjected to comprenhensive investigation of chemical composition and antioxidative, antimcrobial, cytotoxic and antineurodegenerative effects. Analyses of anatomical, micromorphological and cytological characteristics of vegetative and generative plant organs were performed using light microscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The leaves of analyzed species are bifacial, hypoand amfistomatic, with paracytic stomata and collenchyma distributed in the midrib on abaxial side. Stems of S. jurisicii and S. amplexicaulis are quadriangular in cross-section, while stem of S. ringens is round-shaped. Vegetative and generative organs of examined species bear a variety of non-glandular and glandular trihomes, including peltate, capitate and digitifom ones. Secretory head cells varied between different species. „Short“ capitate trihomes (Type I) had been noticed in all of species, while „long“ capitate trihomes (Type II) were present only in floral parts of S. ringens. Digitiform trihomes were found in S. jurisicii and S. ringens leaves. S. jurisicii and S. ringens have spherical and S. amplexicaulis prolate-spherical nutlets. Ornamentation of nutlets surfaces were characterized as reticulate. Mixocarpy was observed 15 minutes after wetting in smaller nutlets of S. amplexicaulis and S. jurisicii and after 45 minutes in larger S. ringens nutlets. Pollen grains of S. ringens are prolate, hexacolpate, radially simmetric, isopolar, with bireticulate egzine ornamentation...

Aerial parts of Salvia ringens Sibth. et Sm var.baldacciana Briq.(Lamiceae) collected in Macedonia contained an essential oil in 0.29% yield. The oil was analyzed by GC and GC/MS. The dominant compounds of this oil were 1,8-cineole (33.8%), α—pinene (10.6%) and myrcene (9.8%). It was found that the oil possessed antibacterial activity against all examined bacteria and antifungal activity against C. albicans. The oil showed stronger inhibitory activity against Gram-positive than Gram-negative bacteria.

The essential oils of Salvia ringens (samples A and B), were analyzed by means of GC and GC/MS. From the seventy-five identified constituents representing 99.82 and 99.86% of the oils, 1,8-cineole and alpha-pinene were the major components. Furthermore, sample B exhibited a very interesting antimicrobial profile after it was tested against six gram (+/-) bacteria and three pathogenic fungi.

The role of antioxidants in preventing oxygen radical and hydrogen peroxide induced cytotoxicity and tissue damage in various human diseases is increasingly recognized. In this study the in vitro antioxidant activity of the ethanol extracts obtained from 21 aromatic plants belonging to the Lamiaceae family was investigated. Of the extracts tested, those of Salvia ringens, Salvia pomifera, Stachys spruneri, Origanum dictamnus, Phlomis lanata, Ballota pseudodictamnus, Ballota acetabulosa, Teucrium polium, Calamintha glandulosa and Micromeria graeca exhibited the same activity as alpha-tocopherol.