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Background: A 12-month cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT) demonstrated the effectiveness of an application-based education program in reducing the salt intake and systolic blood pressure (SBP) of schoolchildren's adult family members. This study aimed to assess whether the effect at 12 months persisted at 24 months. Methods: Fifty-four schools were randomly assigned to either the intervention or control group. All participants (594 children in grade 3 and 1188 of their adult family members) who completed the baseline survey were contacted again 12 months after the trial. The primary outcome was the difference in salt intake change between the intervention and control groups at 24 months versus baseline and 12 months, measured by the mean two consecutive 24-h urinary sodium excretions. The secondary outcome was the difference in the change of blood pressure and salt-related Knowledge, Attitude, Practice (KAP) score. Results: The difference in salt intake change in adults between the intervention and control groups after adjusting for confounding factors was − 0.38 g/day at 24 months versus baseline (95% CI − 0.81 to 0.05, p = 0.09), following the − 0.83 g/day (95% CI − 1.25 to − 0.41, p < 0.001) at 12 months. The adjusted difference in SBP change was − 2.19 mm Hg (95% CI − 3.63 to − 0.76, p = 0.003) at 24 months versus baseline, following the − 1.80 mm Hg (95% CI − 3.19 to − 0.40, p = 0.01) at 12 months. The intervention group had a higher KAP score than the control group both at 12 months and at 24 months versus baseline. No significant changes were found in children. Conclusions: The effect of the education program on adults' salt intake faded, but the SBP lowering effect and the improvement of KAP score remained 12 months after the completion of the RCT. Continuous efforts are needed to maintain the salt reduction effects in real-world settings. Trial registration: ChiCTR1800017553. Registered on August 3, 2018. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, high-salt diets have become one of the world's biggest dietary crisis and long-term high-salt diets are seriously detrimental to human health. In response to this situation, the present study proposed a saltiness enhancement strategy using alginate, which is a dietary fibre from brown algae and has many health benefits, such as regulating intestinal microbiota, anti-hypertension and anti-obesity. The comparison of alginates with different viscosities showed that alginate of 1000–1500 cps at a concentration of 1.25 g/L could enhance the saltiness of NaCl solution by 11.5%. Then, a solid salt was prepared through spray drying with 4.83% of this alginate, and its structure was characterised by X-Ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy to confirm its hollow structure with a particle size of 6.25 ± 2.26 μm as well as its crystal structure similar to original NaCl. Moreover, the conductivity monition revealed that the hollow salt exhibited a more rapid dissolution in water and its alginate component increased the adhesive retention of sodium ions on the tongue surface, which both effectively enhanced the sensory perception. Finally, as revealed by the sensory evaluation, the prepared hollow salt showed higher saltiness than that of original table salt and it could reduce sodium intake by 29%. Thus, the hollow salt prepared with alginate in the present study has potential for salt reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A lower salt intake is an effective management strategy for hypertension and ultimately stroke. However, this strategy compromises the taste of food. To overcome this, a taste manipulation strategey using electronic taste simulation (ETS) has been established, but this has only been studied in healthy individuals. Therefore, this study aimed to demonstrate and quantitatively evaluate the taste enhancement effect of ETS in patients admitted to a hospital due to stroke. Twenty patients (mean = 67.8 ± 13.6 years) underwent two psychophysical experiments to assess the effects of ETS on salt taste perception using salt-impregnated filter paper. The patients' stroke types included twelve ischemic and eight hemorrhagic strokes. The median salt taste thresholds without ETS and with ETS were 0.7% and 0.6%, respectively (p = 0.083). The perceived concentration for the 0.8% concentration increased from 0.8% to 1.0% with the ETS (p = 0.041), and for the 1.0% concentration, from 1.0% to 1.2% (p < 0.001). The findings suggest that ETS significantly enhances salty taste perception in patients who have experienced a stroke without altering salt concentration, potentially aiding in reducing daily salt intake. Further research is necessary to explore its broad applicability in dietary management and blood pressure control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: Salt intake in China was high and a series of salt reduction measures were accordingly carried out recently. Our study aimed to assess the long-term effect of a scale-up community randomized controlled trial (RCT); Methods: Individuals between the ages of 18 and 75, from six provinces in China, were recruited and randomized into control (n = 1347) and intervention (n = 1346) groups. A one-year salt reduction intervention was first implemented in the intervention group, followed by a two-year scale-up intervention in both groups. The 24 h urine sample, anthropometric measurement, and knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of salt reduction, as well as lifestyle information, were collected at baseline, after one-year RCT (mid-term evaluation, n = 2456), and two-year scale-up intervention (terminal evaluation, n = 2267); Results: Both control (351.82 mg/24 h, p < 0.001) and intervention (192.84 mg/24 h, p = 0.006) groups showed a decrease in 24 h urinary sodium excretion from baseline to terminal evaluation. Except for an increase in 24 h urinary potassium excretion (85.03 mg/24 h, p = 0.004) and a decrease in systolic blood pressure (SBP) (2.95 mm Hg, p < 0.001) in the intervention group at the mid-term assessment, no statistically significant differences in other indicators were found between two groups. The KAP of salt reduction in two groups was gradually improved; Conclusions: After one-year RCT and two-year scale-up, all participants showed a decreasing trend in 24 h urinary sodium excretion and an increase in salt reduction KAP. The community salt reduction intervention package has the potential for broader application across other regions in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a mode of therapy in which the patients themselves actively participate in the care of their own disease. We examined a possible association of salt reduction before starting dialysis with PD technique survival. Methods: This retrospective cohort study included 42 patients who started PD between April 2014 and March 2018. Participants were allocated to two groups based on their estimated daily salt intake before the initiation of dialysis: patients with an estimated daily salt intake <6 g/day were allocated to the appropriate salt intake group (AS group), while the rest were assigned to the high salt intake group (HS group). Results: During a median follow‐up of 47 months, PD technique survival, defined by death or transition to hemodialysis, was significantly lower in the HS group compared to the AS group. Conclusion: Successful salt reduction before dialysis introduction is associated with better PD technique survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing salt in food without compromising its quality is a huge challenge. Some review articles have been recently published on saltiness perception in some colloidal systems such as emulsions. However, no published reviews are available on saltiness perceptions of gel-based matrices, even though salt release and perception in these systems have been extensively studied. This article reviews the recent advances in salt perception in gel-based systems and provides a detailed analysis of the main factors affecting salt release. Strategies to enhance saltiness perception in gels and emulsion-filled gels are also reviewed. Saltiness perception can be improved through addition of biopolymers (proteins and polysaccharides) due to their ability to modulate texture and/or to adhere to or penetrate through the mucosal membrane on the tongue to prolong sodium retention. The composition of the product and the distribution of salt within the matrix are the two main factors affecting the perception of salty taste. Food structure re-design can lead to control the level of interaction between the salt and other components and change the structure, which in turn affects the mobility and release of the salt. The change of ingredients/matrix can affect the texture of the product, highlighting the importance of sensory evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background An mHealth-based school health education platform (EduSaltS) was promoted in real-world China to reduce salt intake among children and their families. This progress evaluation explores its implementation process and influencing factors using mixed methods. Methods The mixed-methods process evaluation employed the RE-AIM framework. Quantitative data were collected from a management website monitoring 54,435 third-grade students across two cities. Questionnaire surveys (n = 27,542) assessed pre- and post-education effectiveness. Mixed-effects models were used to control cluster effects. Qualitative interviews (23 individuals and 8 focus groups) identified program performance, facilitators, and barriers. Findings were triangulated using the RE-AIM framework. Results The program achieved 100% participation among all the third-grade classes of the 208 invited primary schools, with a 97.7% registration rate among all the 54,435 families, indicating high "Reach." Qualitative interviews revealed positive engagement from children and parents through the "small hands leading big hands" strategy. The high completion rate of 84.9% for each health cloud lesson and the significant improvement in salt reduction knowledge and behaviors scores from 75.0 (95%CI: 74.7–75.3) to 80.9 (95%CI: 80.6–81.2) out of 100 demonstrated the "Effect" of EduSaltS. The program's "Adoption" and "Implementation" were supported by attractive materials, reduced workload via auto-delivered lessons/activities and performance evaluation, and high fidelity to recommended activities, with medians 3.0 (IQR: 2.0–8.0)/class and 9.0 (IQR: 5.0–14.0)/school. Stable course completion rates (79.4%-93.4%) over one year indicated promising "Maintenance." Apart from the facilitating features praised by the interviewees, government support was the basis for the scaling up of EduSaltS. Barriers included the lack of smartphone skills among some parents and competing priorities for schools. Unhealthy off-campus environments, such as excessive use of salt in pre-packaged and restaurant foods, also hindered salt reduction efforts. The program's scalability was evident through its integration into existing health education, engagement of local governments and adaptation across various mobile devices. Conclusions The mHealth-based school health education program is scalable and effective for public salt reduction in China. Identified barriers and facilitators can inform future health program scale-ups. The program's successful implementation demonstrates its potential for broader application in public health initiatives aimed at reducing dietary salt intake.

The high sodium content in meat products poses health risks to consumers and does not align with modern green and healthy living standards. Current strategies for directly reducing the sodium content in meat products are limited by their negative impact on the sensory or quality attributes of the products. In recent years, there has been great interest in applying ultrasound technology to reduce sodium content. This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of current mainstream strategies for reducing the sodium content in meat products, as well as the potential mechanisms by which ultrasound-assisted marination improves the quality of low-salt meat products. The main findings indicate that ultrasound, through its cavitation and mechanical effects, facilitates the transition of proteins from stable insoluble aggregates to stable soluble complexes, exposing more hydrophilic groups and, thus, enhancing protein solubility. At the same time, ultrasound promotes a greater number of proteins to participate in the formation of interfacial layers, thereby increasing emulsifying activity. Furthermore, ultrasound treatment promotes the interaction between proteins and water, leading to partial unfolding of protein chains, which allows polar residues to more readily capture water in the gel, thereby improving the water-holding capacity of the gel. These effects will contribute to the formation of high-quality low-salt meat products. However, variations in the frequency, intensity, and duration of ultrasound treatment can lead to differing effects on the quality improvement of low-salt meat products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the sodium reduction through non-homogeneous salt distribution in 3Dprinted cookies, focusing on consumer perception and product characteristics. Three formulations were developed: a control (C) and two reduced-sodium samples with homogeneous (75H) and non-homogeneous (75NH) salt distribution, composed of oat flour, corn starch, xanthan gum, extra virgin olive oil, water, and salt. Physicochemical analyses revealed differences in moisture content and water activity, with higher salt reducing these values. No significant differences were found in ash content or color parameters. Texture analysis indicated that reduced-sodium samples had higher firmness, though fracturability did not correlate with consumer acceptance. Sensory analysis with 27 trained tasters showed no significant differences in perceived saltiness between the reduced-sodium samples and the control, attributed to uniform salt perception during chewing and possible redistribution during baking. The findings suggest that 3D printing non-homogeneous salt distribution does not significantly affect perceived saltiness, although texture remains crucial for consumer acceptance. Future research should investigate greater sodium reductions, assess salt distribution pre- and post-baking, and include sensory evaluations with untrained tasters to better understand consumer acceptance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study aimed to assess salt and sugar-related knowledge, attitudes and behaviours (KAB) of adults in the Central Division of Fiji. Methods: A randomised stratified sample of 700 adults were selected. Questions on salt and sugar-related KABs were developed. The survey took place from March to June 2022. For analyses, population and sample weights were applied, and differences between predefined subgroups (sex, age, ethnicity and area) were compared using weighted chi-square tests. Results: 534 adults participated (response rate 76%). Over 80% of participants (82% (95% CI 78.5 to 84.9%)) identified that consuming too much salt or salty sauce can lead to hypertension. More than 90% recognised that consuming too much sugar can lead to diabetes (92.3% (89.7 to 94.3%)). Approximately 80% of participants thought it was somewhat or very important to lower salt and sugar intake in their diet (79.8% (76.1 to 83.0) and 84.2% (80.8 to 87.1%), respectively). However, almost 40% reported adding salt or salty sauces when cooking (37.3% (32.7 to 42.2%)) and 65% (60.6 to 68.5%) adding sugar to drinks daily. Conclusions: Despite having positive knowledge and attitudes, many people reported behaviours likely to contribute to excess salt and sugar intake, highlighting the need for interventions that support behaviour change and the creation of healthier food environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excessive salt intake is highly prevalent worldwide, posing as a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Scientific evidence supports the need for salt reduction in food. This project aimed for application of microencapsulation of aromas of aromatic plants and spices to decrease/exclude salt. Product was applied in school and adult meals in two canteens. Participants fulfilled a questionnaire for hedonic, salt and overall evaluation. Results for sensorial evaluation show no significant differences for most of the parameters (overall evaluationchildren – MCMc = 7,5, SD = ±1,6; MIMc = 8,2, SD = ±1,3; saltchildren – MCSc = 2,9, SD = ±0,7; MISc = 2,6, SD = ±0,7; overall evaluationadultsMCM = 6,8, SD = ±1,1; MIM = 6,5, SD = ±1,3; saltadults – MCM = 3,1, SD = ±0,5; MIM = 2,75, SD = ±0,5)), evidencing good acceptance. This product constitutes a strategy for salt reduction/elimination in catering and people's homes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edible brown seaweeds, sea spaghetti (SS) and Irish wakame (IW), were incorporated at 2.5% into the formulation of reduced-fat (fat reduced from 25% to 20%, 15%, and 10%) and -salt (sodium chloride—NaCl) (salt reduced from 2% to 1.5%, 1%, and 0.5%) pork sausages. The physicochemical and sensory characteristics of the reformulated sausages were analysed. Subsequently, shelf-life evaluation (lipid oxidation and microbiological analyses) was performed on selected sausages stored under aerobic (AP), MAP70/30 (70% N2:30% CO2), MAP80/20 (80% O2:20% CO2), and vacuum (VP) conditions. Relative to the control, seaweed sausages containing 10% fat had higher (p < 0.05) protein and 1.5% salt seaweed sausages had higher (p < 0.05) ash content. The addition of seaweed did not affect the pH of reduced-fat and -salt sausages, and cook loss increased in reduced-fat sausages. Reduced-fat and -salt seaweed sausages were darker in colour than the experimental controls. Based on sensory results, the most accepted sausages using SS and IW were 10% fat, 0.5% salt (SS10f/0.5s), and 15% fat, 1% salt (IW15f/1s), respectively. With regard to the shelf life of selected seaweed sausages, MAP70/30 (70% N2, 30% CO2) and VP (vacuum packaging) were the most effective approaches for the lipid oxidation and TVC (total viable counts), respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: An mHealth-based school health education platform (EduSaltS) was promoted in real-world China to reduce salt intake among children and their families. This progress evaluation explores its implementation process and influencing factors using mixed methods. Methods: The mixed-methods process evaluation employed the RE-AIM framework. Quantitative data were collected from a management website monitoring 54,435 third-grade students across two cities. Questionnaire surveys (n = 27,542) assessed pre- and post-education effectiveness. Mixed-effects models were used to control cluster effects. Qualitative interviews (23 individuals and 8 focus groups) identified program performance, facilitators, and barriers. Findings were triangulated using the RE-AIM framework. Results: The program achieved 100% participation among all the third-grade classes of the 208 invited primary schools, with a 97.7% registration rate among all the 54,435 families, indicating high "Reach." Qualitative interviews revealed positive engagement from children and parents through the "small hands leading big hands" strategy. The high completion rate of 84.9% for each health cloud lesson and the significant improvement in salt reduction knowledge and behaviors scores from 75.0 (95%CI: 74.7–75.3) to 80.9 (95%CI: 80.6–81.2) out of 100 demonstrated the "Effect" of EduSaltS. The program's "Adoption" and "Implementation" were supported by attractive materials, reduced workload via auto-delivered lessons/activities and performance evaluation, and high fidelity to recommended activities, with medians 3.0 (IQR: 2.0–8.0)/class and 9.0 (IQR: 5.0–14.0)/school. Stable course completion rates (79.4%-93.4%) over one year indicated promising "Maintenance." Apart from the facilitating features praised by the interviewees, government support was the basis for the scaling up of EduSaltS. Barriers included the lack of smartphone skills among some parents and competing priorities for schools. Unhealthy off-campus environments, such as excessive use of salt in pre-packaged and restaurant foods, also hindered salt reduction efforts. The program's scalability was evident through its integration into existing health education, engagement of local governments and adaptation across various mobile devices. Conclusions: The mHealth-based school health education program is scalable and effective for public salt reduction in China. Identified barriers and facilitators can inform future health program scale-ups. The program's successful implementation demonstrates its potential for broader application in public health initiatives aimed at reducing dietary salt intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Objective This study aimed to develop and validate the Salt Reduction Behavior Scale (SRBS) to measure the behavior of hypertensive Chinese individuals in adhering to salt reduction practices. Methods The SRBS was constructed based on the Health Belief Model, consisting of five constructs: knowledge, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, and cues to action. Data were collected from 2,082 hypertensive patients in Beijing, China, who completed a questionnaire administered through an online platform. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test was used to assess the adequacy of the sample and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity to examine the factorability of the dataset. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to assess the structural validity and reliability of the SRBS. Results The KMO analysis yielded a notably elevated value of 0.95, indicating that the data was highly suitable for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded a statistically significant test statistic (P

AbstractSalt (sodium chloride) plays a key role in maintaining the textural, microbiological, and sensorial aspects of the foods. However high dietary salt intake in the population has led to a series of health problems. Currently manufacturers are under pressure to reduce the sodium levels in foods without compromising the consumer experience. Because of the clean salty taste produced by sodium chloride, it has been challenging for the food industry to develop a suitable salt substitute. Studies have shown that different components within a food matrix can influence the perception of saltiness. This review aims to comprehend the potential synergistic effect of compounds such as minerals and amino acids on the perception of saltiness and covers the mechanism of perception where relevant to taste resulting from sodium ions and other metallic ions (such as K, Mg, Ca), as well as various amino acids and their derivatives. Finally, the review summarizes various salt reduction strategies explored by researchers, government organizations and food industry, including the potential use of plant-based extracts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olfactory and gustatory functions are important sensory aspects in humans. Although they are believed to influence each other, their interrelationship is not well understood. In this study, we aimed to investigate the relationship between the olfactory and gustatory functions based on the results of a large-scale epidemiological study (Iwaki Health Promotion Project) of the general local population. We analyzed 565 participants who underwent taste and olfactory tests in the 2019 Iwaki Project. Gustatory function was tested for four taste qualities (sweet, sour, salty, and bitter) using whole-mouth taste tests. Olfactory function was tested using the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test modified for Japanese (UPSIT-J). We evaluated sex-related differences between olfactory and gustatory functions and the effects of various factors on olfactory identification using multivariate analysis. Furthermore, we compared the percentage of accurate UPSIT-J responses between the normal and hypogeusia groups. We also analyzed the effects of taste and olfactory functions on eating. Olfactory and gustatory functions were lower in men than in women. Among the four taste qualities, salty taste was the most closely associated with olfactory identification ability, with lower olfactory scores of salty taste in the hypogeusia group than in the normal group. Moreover, the hyposmia group had higher daily salt intake than the normal olfaction group in women. These results suggest that olfactory identification tests may be useful in predicting elevated salt cognitive thresholds, leading to a reduction in salt intake, which may contribute to hypertension prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excessive salt intake, primarily from sodium chloride prevalent in modern food processing, poses a significant public health risk associated with hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and stroke. Researchers worldwide are exploring approaches to reduce salt consumption without compromising food flavor. One promising method is to enhance salty taste perception using multisensory synergies, leveraging gustatory, olfactory, auditory, visual, tactile and trigeminal senses to decrease salt intake while preserving food taste. This review provides a comprehensive overview of salt usage in foods, mechanisms of salty taste perception and evaluation methods for saltiness. Various strategies for reducing salt consumption while maintaining food flavor are examined, with existing salt reduction methods' advantages and limitations being critically analyzed. A particular emphasis is placed on exploring the mechanisms and potential of multisensory synergy in salt reduction. Taste interactions, olfactory cues, auditory stimulation, visual appearance and tactile sensations in enhancing saltiness perception are discussed, offering insights into developing nutritious, appealing low-sodium foods. Furthermore, challenges in current research are highlighted, and future directions for effective salt reduction strategies to promote public health are proposed. This review aims to establish a scientific foundation for creating healthier, flavorful low-sodium food options that meet consumer preferences and wellness needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study aimed to develop and validate the Salt Reduction Behavior Scale (SRBS) to measure the behavior of hypertensive Chinese individuals in adhering to salt reduction practices. Methods: The SRBS was constructed based on the Health Belief Model, consisting of five constructs: knowledge, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, and cues to action. Data were collected from 2,082 hypertensive patients in Beijing, China, who completed a questionnaire administered through an online platform. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test was used to assess the adequacy of the sample and the Bartlett's test of sphericity to examine the factorability of the dataset. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to assess the structural validity and reliability of the SRBS. Results: The KMO analysis yielded a notably elevated value of 0.95, indicating that the data was highly suitable for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Bartlett's test of sphericity yielded a statistically significant test statistic (P < 0.001). The 32-item SRB questionnaire demonstrated strong internal consistency with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.923. A second-order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) revealed that, after removing the unrelated construct of barriers, SRB could be represented by four sub-constructs: knowledge, severity, benefits, and action. The final version of the SRBS consists of 21 items. These items displayed high factor loadings, indicating a strong relationship between the items and their respective sub-constructs. The discriminant validity analysis revealed that the SRBS sub-constructs were distinct from each other. The SRBS scores were positively correlated with self-reported salt reduction practices. This demonstrates that individuals with higher SRBS scores were more likely to engage in actual salt reduction behaviors, indicating concurrent validity. Conclusion: The results illustrate that the Salt Reduction Behavior Scale is a robust and comprehensive instrument for assessing salt reduction behavior among hypertensive Chinese individuals. The scale's specific sub-constructs provide a detailed understanding of their knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to salt consumption. Healthcare professionals and policymakers can utilize this tool to tailor interventions and educational programs to encourage healthier dietary habits, thereby reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to develop low-sodium curing agents for dry-cured meat products. Four low-sodium formulations (SPMA, SPM, SP, and SM) were used for dry-curing meat. The physicochemical properties and flavor of the dry-cured meat were investigated. The presence of Mg2+ ions hindered the penetration of Na+ into the meat. The weight loss, moisture content, and pH of all low-sodium salt groups were lower than those of S. Mg2+ addition increased the water activity (Aw) of SPMA, SPM, and SM. Dry-curing meat with low-sodium salts promoted the production of volatile flavor compounds, with Mg2+ playing a more prominent role. Furthermore, low-sodium salts also promoted protein degradation and increased the content of free amino acids in dry-cured meat, especially in SM. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the low-sodium salts containing Mg2+ were conducive to improving the quality of dry-cured meat products. Therefore, low-sodium salts enriched with Mg2+ become a desirable low-sodium curing agent for achieving salt reduction in dry-cured meat products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impacts of salt reduction by NaCl sprinkling and NaCl substitution with 25% calcium lactate on the quality of blue cheese were evaluated. Sprinkling reduced sodium content by 35% and substitution reduced sodium content by 47%. The salt‐reduced cheeses had a higher calcium content, vitamin B2, B6, and B12 levels, and a higher rate of proteolysis. Sensory and texture profile analysis found that the salt‐reduced cheeses had a less salty taste and were less firm. These methods enabled significant salt reduction but had negative effects on the cheese properties, and so further work is needed to diminish these effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: As a result of its correlation with cardiovascular diseases, salt intake must be reduced. According to multi‐sensory integration, aroma plays an important role in saltiness enhancement; this could enable a food's salt content to be reduced without losing acceptance. We therefore studied the effect of three spices, Curcuma longa, Laurus nobilis L. and Petroselinum crispum L., on saltiness enhancement through sensory tests on consumers. This was followed by olfactometric analysis with the aim of relating the effect to the spices' aromatic composition. RESULTS: According to the odour‐induced salty taste enhancement (OISE) mean values, bay leaf and turmeric had the highest effect on saltiness enhancement, at a similar level to dry‐cured ham aroma, wherwas parsley had a significantly lower OISE value. Only one odour‐active compound (OAC), eugenol, showed a direct correlation with the spices' OISE values. Turmeric primarily had OACs with sweet aroma, whereas bay leaf had more OACs belonging to the spicy‐aroma category. CONCLUSION: The three spices, turmeric, bay leaf and parsley, investigated in the present study appear to enhance the salty taste of mashed potato with a low salt content. The results suggest that an interaction effect among OACs with different aromatic ranges may exist. Therefore, when the global OAC modified frequency value, grouped according to aroma range, was considered, the sweet range appears to counteract the effect of the spicy aroma on saltiness. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the impact of varying salt concentrations on microbiota, physicochemical properties, and metabolites in a secondary fortified fermentation process using multi-omics techniques. It aimed to determine the influence of salt stress on microbiota shifts and metabolic activities. The findings demonstrated that moderate salt reduction (MS) was found to enhance moromi's flavor and quality, while mitigating the negative effects of excessive low salt (LS). MS samples had 1.22, 1.13, and 2.92 times more amino acid nitrogen (AAN), non-volatiles, and volatiles, respectively, than high salt (HS) samples. In contrast, lactic acid and biogenic amines in LS samples were 1.56 g/100 g and 4115.11 mg/kg, respectively, decreasing to 0.15 g/100 g and 176.76 mg/kg in MS samples. Additionally, the contents of ethanol and small peptides increased in MS due to the growth of specific functional microorganisms such as Staphylococcus gallinarum, Weissella confusa, and Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, while food-borne pathogens were inhibited. Network analysis revealed that the core microbial interactions were enhanced in MS samples, promoting a balanced fermentation environment. Redundancy analysis (RDA) and correlation analyses underscored that the physicochemical properties significantly impacted bacterial community structure and the correlations between key microbes and flavor compounds. These findings provided a theoretical foundation for developing innovative reduced-salt fermentation techniques, contributing to the sustainable production of high-quality soy sauce.

IntroductionMayonnaise, mustard, and ketchup are table sauces enjoyed worldwide, adding flavour and texture to many dishes. However, these products often contain high sodium content, which contributes to health issues such as high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease. To address these concerns, reducing salt content in the sauces has become a significant goal for both manufacturers and consumers.ObjectivesThis study investigates the effects of three formulations of microencapsulated (ME) oleoresins (F1, F2, and F3), derived from aromatic plants and spices, on the mineral content, physical–chemical properties, colour, and sensory profiles of mayonnaise, mustard, and ketchup.ResultsThe addition of ME ingredients resulted in significant reductions in salt content across all sauces, with reductions up to 50% in mayonnaise, 45% in mustard, and 52% in ketchup, aligning with EU sodium guidelines and allowing for a “reduced Na/NaCl content” nutrition claim. Potassium levels in mustard and ketchup were sufficient to support health claims related to blood pressure maintenance, while chloride content was reduced in ME formulations, better aligning with dietary reference values. Physical–chemical analysis revealed that ME ingredients had minimal impact on parameters like pH, lipid oxidation, and viscosity, although significant differences were observed in specific areas, such as the consistency of ketchup and chloride content in mustard and ketchup. The use of inulin, as a carrier agent, helped maintain the sauces rheological properties. Mustard showed the most similarity to the control in terms of physical–chemical parameters. Colour analysis indicated minimal changes in mayonnaise, moderate changes in mustard, and significant differences in ketchup, particularly with the ME-F3 formulation, where the light-yellow ME ingredients had a pronounced effect on the darker sauce. Despite these differences, the sensory analysis demonstrated that the overall sensory profiles of the ME formulations were similar the like control for all sauces. Mayonnaise showed the closest resemblance, while mustard had slightly lower scores in flavour and saltiness. Ketchup followed the same trend as mayonnaise, with no significant sensory differences compared to the control.ConclusionThese findings suggest that ME ingredients can be effectively used in condiment reformulation to achieve significant salt reduction without compromising sensory qualities, while also supporting health-related claims. By incorporating ME-based salt reduction strategies and exploring low-sodium alternatives, consumers can continue to enjoy their favourite sauces while minimising sodium intake. Embracing these changes not only benefits personal health but also aligns with the industry’s commitment to offering more nutritious options.

A lower salt intake is an effective management strategy for hypertension and ultimately stroke. However, this strategy compromises the taste of food. To overcome this, a taste manipulation strategey using electronic taste simulation (ETS) has been established, but this has only been studied in healthy individuals. Therefore, this study aimed to demonstrate and quantitatively evaluate the taste enhancement effect of ETS in patients admitted to a hospital due to stroke. Twenty patients (mean = 67.8 ± 13.6 years) underwent two psychophysical experiments to assess the effects of ETS on salt taste perception using salt-impregnated filter paper. The patients’ stroke types included twelve ischemic and eight hemorrhagic strokes. The median salt taste thresholds without ETS and with ETS were 0.7% and 0.6%, respectively (p = 0.083). The perceived concentration for the 0.8% concentration increased from 0.8% to 1.0% with the ETS (p = 0.041), and for the 1.0% concentration, from 1.0% to 1.2% (p < 0.001). The findings suggest that ETS significantly enhances salty taste perception in patients who have experienced a stroke without altering salt concentration, potentially aiding in reducing daily salt intake. Further research is necessary to explore its broad applicability in dietary management and blood pressure control.

Currently, high-salt diets have become one of the world’s biggest dietary crisis and long-term high-salt diets are seriously detrimental to human health. In response to this situation, the present study proposed a saltiness enhancement strategy using alginate, which is a dietary fibre from brown algae and has many health benefits, such as regulating intestinal microbiota, anti-hypertension and anti-obesity. The comparison of alginates with different viscosities showed that alginate of 1000–1500 cps at a concentration of 1.25 g/L could enhance the saltiness of NaCl solution by 11.5%. Then, a solid salt was prepared through spray drying with 4.83% of this alginate, and its structure was characterised by X-Ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy to confirm its hollow structure with a particle size of 6.25 ± 2.26 μm as well as its crystal structure similar to original NaCl. Moreover, the conductivity monition revealed that the hollow salt exhibited a more rapid dissolution in water and its alginate component increased the adhesive retention of sodium ions on the tongue surface, which both effectively enhanced the sensory perception. Finally, as revealed by the sensory evaluation, the prepared hollow salt showed higher saltiness than that of original table salt and it could reduce sodium intake by 29%. Thus, the hollow salt prepared with alginate in the present study has potential for salt reduction.

Seaweed is a naturally rich source of nutrients and exhibits techno-functional properties that are under study for their potential as ingredients in meat products. However, seaweed is associated with a particular flavor profile, and optimization of the sensory profile should be conducted alongside technical performance. This study investigated the feasibility of the application of sea spaghetti (Himanthalia elongata) in the production of low-salt beef patties and recorded the associated sensory profile and consumer hedonic-emotional response. Eight beef patty formulations with varying salt (0–1%) and seaweed (0–5%) contents were subjected to quantitative descriptive analysis via a trained sensory panel (n = 8) and six the formulations were selected for consumer testing (liking, emotional associations, saltiness perception, and purchase intent) by a group of 105 Irish resident consumers. The trained panel results showed that the intensity of seaweed odor, flavor, and visual presence in burgers was negatively related to the intensity of beef odor and flavor and that seaweed addition (5%) significantly increased the saltiness perception of low-salt burgers. Burgers with 1% added seaweed, although perceived by consumers as less salty, could substitute NaCl in low-salt beef patties without deterioration of their liking among regular burger consumers. Consumers associated all seaweed-containing samples, especially those containing 1% of sea spaghetti, with being good, pleasant, satisfied, and warm. The higher inclusion of sea spaghetti (2.5%) led to significantly lower overall liking and reduced purchase intent, while consumers associated this formulation with emotions such as being more adventurous, aggressive, and wild. Consumers who rejected seaweed burgers had the highest level of food neophobia and avoided foods with additives. The results demonstrate that 1% sea spaghetti seaweed can be successfully incorporated into low-salt beef patties, resulting in hedonic and emotional benefits without significantly increasing the salt content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a reduced‐salt substitute (composed of NaCl, sodium gluconate, KCl, L‐histidine, and L‐lysine) applied in the fermentation of traditional Pixian douban (PXDB) were explored in this study according to sensory quality, physicochemical characteristics, color, colony count, and the contents of free amino acids (FAAs), organic acids, and volatile flavor compounds. The results showed that the PXDB with a 15% salt substitution had the most attractive reddish‐brown color, a mellow fragrance, and the lowest total colony count of the three pastes. The fermentation quality of the 15% salt substitute PXDB was superior to that of the control groups, its sensory quality was more readily accepted, and the contents of its amino acid nitrogen, FAAs and organic acids had increased by 0.1050, 0.3290, and 3.9068 mg/g, respectively. Moreover, the concentrations of the main aroma compounds in the PXDB containing the salt substitute were higher than those of the control. These included phenylethanol, 3‐methylthiopropanol, isoamyl alcohol, furfural, benzaldehyde, phenylacetaldehyde, nonanal, isoamyl aldehyde, 4‐ethylphenol, and, particularly, 2,6‐dimethylpyrazine, which had increased as much as 100 times. Correlation analysis showed that Glu, Phe, Tyr, Gly, Leu, Val, Asp, Ile, citric acids, and succinic acids were all positively correlated with the main aroma and contributed to the generation of PXDB's characteristic flavor, and main aroma substances in turn positively influence PXDB flavor sensory attributes. Overall, these results showed the application of the 15% salt substitute during PXDB fermentation improved the quality of the paste and, thus, would benefit the development of reduced‐salt PXDB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is a vital ingredient in fermented foods, which affects their safety, texture, and flavor characteristics. Recently, the demand for reduced-sodium fermented foods has increased, as consumers have become more health-conscious. However, reducing sodium content in fermented foods may negatively affect flavor perception, which is a critical quality attribute of fermented foods for both the food industry and consumers. This review summarizes the role of salt in the human body and foods and its role in the flavor perception of fermented foods. Current sodium reduction strategies used in the food industry mainly include the direct stealth reduction of NaCl, substituting NaCl with other chloride salts, and structure modification of NaCl. The odor-induced saltiness enhancement, application of starter cultures, flavor enhancers, and non-thermal processing technology are potential strategies for flavor compensation of sodium-reduced fermented foods. However, reducing sodium in fermented food is challenging due to its specific role in flavor perception (e.g., promoting saltiness and volatile compound release from food matrices, inhibiting bitterness, and changing microflora structure). Therefore, multiple challenges must be addressed in order to improve the flavor of low-sodium fermented foods. Future studies should thus focus on the combination of several strategies to compensate for the deficiencies in flavor resulting from sodium reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of China Condiment is the property of China Condiment and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of China Condiment is the property of China Condiment and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Introduction: Culinary interventions (cooking classes) are a potential educational tool for salt reduction in the home diet, but their content has never been reported in detail. This study aimed to develop a cooking class for salt reduction, describe its rationale and structure so that other parties could replicate it, and preliminarily assess its impact on salt intake. Methods: A multidisciplinary research team developed a cooking class package to reduce salt content in the Japanese home diet. The package comprised its developmental policy, teaching methodology, a menu and recipes, and an implementation manual and aimed to allow third parties to replicate and modify the content. The team took the following step-by-step developmental approach. First, traditional home meals were modeled to create strategies contributing to a target of 2 g salt/meal. Then, educational topics were developed through these strategies, and finally, a dietitian produced menus and prepared documents for the class. The impact of the cooking class was assessed in a nonrandomized study of community residents. The outcome was differences in urinary salt excretion before and after the intervention. General linear models were used to account for the possible confounders. Results: The authors assumed 4–7 g salt/meal from analyzing typical Japanese home diets and developed 3 strategies: (1) restricting salt content in the main dish, (2) maintaining good tastes without salty dishes, and (3) balancing nutrition with low-salt dishes. On the basis of these strategies, the authors selected a total of 5 educational topics that participants could learn and apply at home: 1a, a simple and reliable technique to limit salt in a serving; 2a, excluding salty dishes; 2b, staple foods with notable flavor and aroma; 3a, flavoring without salt in side dishes; and 3b, ingredients that should be used intentionally. The team dietitian translated these educational topics into a menu and recipes for hands-on training and prepared a manual for conducting the class. The class developed using this approach was successfully overseen by a dietitian outside the research team. In the validation study, the intervention group (n=52) showed a greater decrease in urinary salt excretion than the control group (n=46), with an adjusted difference of −1.38 g (p=0.001). Conclusions: The authors developed a cooking class package for salt reduction so that third parties could replicate and modify the class. The significant salt reduction noted in this study warrants further studies to apply this cooking class to other populations.

This study investigated the savory intensity of aroma-active compounds derived from yeast extract Maillard reaction models. Sensory evaluation results revealed that beef flavoring model (28.00 g) exhibited the highest savory perception intensity when the yeast extract FA34 (0.50 g) the added. Eleven aroma-active compounds associated with saltiness perception were identified via solid-phase microextraction and extraction combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry/olfactory. The odorant–NaCl mixture model and saltiness intensity evaluation results revealed that thiazole and 4-methylpentanoic acid could significantly (p < 0.05) enhance the saltiness perception of salt solution (5.00 g/L), 2-methylpyrazine, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, furfuryl mercaptan, and methyl 2-methyl-3-furyl disulfide could significantly (p < 0.01) enhance the saltiness perception of a salt solution (5.00 g/L). Electroencephalography revealed that the main mechanisms underlying aroma-induced saltiness perception enhancement included the strengthening of the saltiness perception signal and prolonging signal stimulation time in the frontal regions of the cerebral cortex.

Abstract Objective: This study aimed to fill the current gap in the understanding of the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours (KAB) related to dietary Na among adult residents in Singapore. Design: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted between October and December 2020 on 955 participants selected through random sampling. Setting: The survey was conducted in Singapore. Participants: Participants were recruited from the Singapore Population Health Study Online Panel. Results: Participants’ mean age was 46·6 ± 14·1 years old and 58 % of them were females. Most of the participants were Chinese (82·1 %), 10·5 % were Indian and 4·5 % were Malay. Findings from the weighted data showed that most participants were aware of the health impact of high Na consumption. However, many participants were unaware of the recommended intake for salt (68%) and Na (83%), had misconceptions, and were unable to correctly use food labels to assess NA content (69%). Findings also alluded to the presence of knowledge gaps in the sources of Na in their diet. While 59 % of the participants reported to be limiting their consumption of Na, many reported facing barriers such as not knowing how to limit their Na intake. Participants also felt that there were limited options for low-Na foods when eating out and were lacking awareness of low-Na products. Conclusions: Findings highlighted substantial gaps in participants’ knowledge and skills in managing their Na consumption. This suggests the need for more public education and improvements in the food environment.