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[ES] La fibra óptica ha supuesto una gran revolución en el mundo de las telecomunicaciones debido a su alta capacidad de transmisión y sus bajas pérdidas. Hoy en día no sería posible transportar la cantidad de tráfico que se genera en internet si no fuera por sis- temas de comunicaciones basados en fibras ópticas. Sin embargo, el número de dispo- sitivos conectados a internet es cada vez mayor, por lo que la capacidad de la fibra óptica estándar de un solo núcleo se puede ver limitada en un futuro no muy lejano. Una forma de aumentar dicha capacidad es utilizar fibras ópticas con varios núcleos. Actualmente existe un gran interés sobre la investigación en este tipo de fibras para aplicaciones de telecomunicaciones, por lo que no es difícil encontrar fibras multinú- cleo comerciales. Aunque el uso más común de la fibra óptica es para telecomunicaciones, también se puede utilizar como sensor. Uno de los métodos más comunes para la implementa- ción de sensores es la inscripción de redes de difracción en fibras ópticas de un solo núcleo. Sin embargo, la inscripción de redes de dirección en fibras de múltiples núcleos abre nuevas líneas de investigación para el desarrollo de sensores avanzados. En esta tesis se ha estudiado distintos tipos de redes de difracción inscritas en una fibra de siete núcleos para su aplicación en la implementación de sensores. En primer lugar, se describe el sistema de fabricación que permite inscribir distintos tipos de redes de difracción en la fibra multinúcleo de forma selectiva, es decir, permite seleccionar en que núcleos se va a inscribir la red. Mediante este sistema se han inscrito redes de periodo largo y posteriormente se han caracterizado como sensor de deformación, tor- sión y curvatura. Después, se han inscrito redes de Bragg inclinadas para aumentar de forma intencionada la diafonía entre los núcleos de la fibra mediante el acoplo de luz entre ellos. Además, se ha demostrado experimentalmente que esta diafonía es sensible a la de, [CAT] La fibra òptica ha suposat una gran revolució en el món de les telecomunicacions a causa de la seua alta capacitat de transmissió i les seues baixes pèrdues. Hui en dia no seria possible transportar la quantitat d'informació que es genera en internet si no fos pels sistemes de comunicacions basats en fibres òptiques. No obstant això, el nombre de dispositius connectats a internet es cada vegada més gran, per la qual cosa la capacitat de la fibra òptica estàndard d'un sol nucli es pot veure limitada en un futur no gaire llunyà. Una manera d'augmentar aquesta capacitat es utilitzar fibres òptiques amb diversos nuclis. Actualment existeix un gran interès sobre la investigació en aquesta mena de fibres per a aplicacions de telecomunicacions, per la qual cosa no es difícil trobar fibres de múltiples nuclis comercials. Encara que l'ús mes comú de la fibra òptica es per a telecomunicacions, també es pot utilitzar com a sensor. Un dels mètodes més comuns per a la implementació de sensors es la inscripció de xarxes de difracció en fibres òptiques d'un sol nucli. No obstant això, la inscripció de xarxes de difracció en fibres de múltiples nuclis obri noves línies d'investigació per al desenvolupament de sensors més complexos. En aquesta tesi s'ha estudiat diferents tipus de xarxes de difracció inscrites en una fibra de set nuclis per a la seua aplicació en la implementació de sensors en fibra òptica. En primer lloc, es descriu el sistema de fabricació de xarxes de difracció que permet inscriure diferents tipus de xarxes de difracció en la fibra de múltiples nuclis de manera selectiva, es a dir, permet seleccionar en que nuclis s'inscriurà la xarxa. Mitjançant aquest sistema s'han inscrit xarxes de període llarg i posteriorment s'han caracteritzat com a sensor de deformació, torsió i curvatura. Després, s'han inscrit xarxes de Bragg inclinades per a augmentar de manera intencionada la diafonia entre els nuclis de la fibra mitjançant l'acoblament de llum entre ells. A més, [EN] Optical fiber has been a great revolution in the world of telecommunications due to its high transmission capacity and low attenuation. Today it would not be possible to transport the amount of traffic that is generated on the Internet without communication systems based on optical fibers. However, the number of devices connected to the Internet is increasing, so the capacity of standard single-core fiber optics may be limited so far in the future. One way to increase this capacity is to use multi-core optical fibers. Nowadays is a great interest in research in this type of fibers for telecommunications applications, so it is not difficult to find commercial multicore fibers. Although the most common use of fiber optics is for telecommunications, it can also be used as a sensor. One of the most common methods for sensor implementation is the inscription of diffraction gratings on single-core optical fibers. However, the enrollment of steering networks in multi-core fibers opens new lines of research for the development of advanced sensors. In this thesis, different types of diffraction gratings inscribed in a seven-core fiber have been studied for their application in the implementation of sensors. In the first place, the diffraction grating manufacturing system is described that allows to inscribe different types of diffraction gratings in the multicore fiber selectively, that is, it allows to select in which cores the grating is going to be inscribed. By means of this system, long-period networks have been inscribed and subsequently they have been characterized as a deformation, torsion, and curvature sensor. Then, slanted Bragg gratings have been inscribed to intentionally increase the crosstalk between the fiber cores by coupling light between them. Furthermore, this crosstalk has been experimentally shown to be sensitive to fiber deformation, curvature, temperature, and the index of refraction surrounding the fiber. On the other hand, it has been shown tha

[ES] Las fibras ópticas son dispositivos muy utilizados en el campo de las telecomunicaciones desde su descubrimiento. En las últimas décadas, las fibras ópticas comenzaron a utilizarse como sensores fotónicos. Los primeros trabajos se centraron en la medición de unas dimensiones físicas en un punto específico. Posteriormente, surgió la posibilidad de medir las propiedades de la fibra óptica en diferentes puntos a lo largo de la fibra. Este tipo de sensores se definen como sensores distribuidos. Los componentes optoelectrónicos fueron desarrollados e investigados para telecomunicaciones. Los avances en las telecomunicaciones hicieron posible el desarrollo de sistemas de interrogación para sensores de fibra óptica, creciendo en paralelo con los avances de las telecomunicaciones. Se desarrollaron sistemas de interrogación de fibra óptica que permiten el uso de una única fibra óptica monomodo estándar como sensor que puede monitorear decenas de miles de puntos de detección al mismo tiempo. Los métodos que extraen la información de detección de la señal reflejada en la fibra óptica son los más empleados debido a la facilidad de acceso al sensor y la flexibilidad de estos sistemas. Los más estudiados son la reflectometría en dominios de tiempo y frecuencia. La reflectometría óptica en el dominio del tiempo (OTDR) fue la primera técnica utilizada para detectar la posición de los fallos en las redes de comunica-ción de fibra óptica. El OTDR sensible a la fase hizo posible detectar la elongación y la temperatura en una posición específica. Paralelamente, los gratings de Bragg (FBG) se convirtieron en los dispositivos más utilizados para implementar sensores en fibra óptica discretos. Se desarrollaron técnicas de multiplexación para realizar la detección en múltiples puntos utilizando FGBs. La reflectometría realizada interrogando arrays de FBG débiles demuestra que mejora el rendimiento del sistema en comparación al uso de una fibra monomodo. Los sistemas de interrogatorio, [CA] Les fibres òptiques són dispositius molt utilitzats en el camp de les telecomunica-cions des del seu descobriment. En les últimes dècades, les fibres òptiques van començar a utilitzar-se com a sensors fotònics. Els primers treballs es van centrar en el mesurament d'unes dimensions físiques en un punt específic. Posteriorment, va sorgir la possibilitat de mesurar les propietats de la fibra òptica en diferents punts al llarg de la fibra. Aquest tipus de sensors es defineixen com a sensors distribüits. Els components optoelectrònics van ser desenvolupats i investigats per a telecomunicacions. Els avanços en les telecomunicacions van fer possi-ble el desenvolupament de sistemes d'interrogació per a sensors de fibra òptica, creixent en paral·lel amb els avanços de les telecomunicacions. Es van desenvolupar sistemes d'interrogació de fibra òptica que permeten l'ús d'una única fibra òptica monomodo estàndard com a sensor que pot monitorar desenes de milers de punts de detecció al mateix temps. Els mètodes que extreuen la informació de detecció del senyal reflectit en la fibra òptica són els més utilitzats a causa de la facilitat d'accés al sensor i la flexibilitat d'aquests sistemes. Els més estudiats són la reflectometría en dominis de temps i freqüència. La reflectometría òptica en el domini del temps (OTDR) va ser la primera tècnica utilitzada per a detectar la posició de les fallades en les xarxes de comunicació de fibra òptica. El OTDR sensible a la fase va fer possible detectar l'elongació i la temperatura en una posició específica. Paral·lelament, els gratings de Bragg (FBG) es van convertir en els dispositius més utilitzats per a implementar sensors en fibra òptica discrets. Es van desenvolupar tècniques de multiplexació per a realitzar la detecció en múltiples punts utilitzant FGBs. La reflectometría realitzada interrogant arrays de FBG febles demostra que millora el rendiment del sistema en comparació a l'ús d'una fibra monomodo. Els sistemes d'interrogatori, [EN] Optical fibers are devices largely used in telecommunication field since their discovery. In the last decades, optical fibers started to be used as photonic sensors. The first works were focused on the measurement of physical dimensions to a specific point. Afterward, emerged the possibility to measure the optical fiber properties at different locations along the fiber. These kinds of sensors are defined as distributed sensors. The optoelectronic components were developed and investigated for telecommunications. The progress in telecommunication made possible the development of optical fiber sensors interrogation systems, growing in parallel with the advances of telecommunications. Optical fiber interrogation systems were developed to use a single standard monomode optical fiber as a sensor that can monitor tens of thousands of sensing points at the same time. The methods that extract the sensing information from the backscattered signal in the optical fiber are widely employed because of the easiness of access to the sensor element and the flexibility of these systems. The most studied are the reflectometry in time and frequency domains. The optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) was the first technique used to detect the position of the failures in the optical fiber communication networks. Using phase sensitive OTDR it is possible to sense strain and temperature at a specific position. In parallel, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) became the most widely used devices to implement discrete optical fiber sensors. Multiplexing techniques were developed to perform multi points sensing using these gratings. The reflectometry performed interrogating weak FBGs arrays demonstrate to improve the performance of the system employing a single mode fiber. The interrogation systems nowadays have some drawbacks. Some of them are limited speed of interrogation, bulkiness, and high cost. New interrogation systems and optical fiber sensors were developed in this doctoral thesis to

[EN] Composites have added new dimensions to the design and construction of buildings and struc-tures. One of the wider spread composite applications in the construction industry is composite beams or pillars, which can be manufactured through pultrusion processes. These types of con-struction elements are usually used to withstand the weight of large loads, so their integrity must be guaranteed. Due to optical sensors¿ advantages over their electrical counterparts¿small sizes, low weight, non-conductive, and immunity to electromagnetic interference¿and FBGs having an outstanding position among optical fibre sensors¿due to their multiplexation capability and relatively easy monitoring¿in this study, we propose the integration of FBG sensors for the observation and analysis of the integrity of structures made with composite beams over time. The validation test results showed the successful embedding integration of FBG-based fibre optical sensors in an FRP pultrusion beam and strain transmission up to 7500 µ¿ from the composite test piece to the sensor. Additionally, we were able to anticipate the piece failure by the FBG spectrum deformation.

[EN] The present paper assesses the performance and characteristics of fiber Bragg grating sensors, with a special interest in their applications in hydraulic machinery and systems. The hydropower industry is turning to this technology with high expectations of obtaining high quality data to validate and calibrate numerical models that could be used as digital twins of key assets, further strengthening the sector's relevant position within industry 4.0. Prior to any validation, fiber Bragg grating sensors' ability to perform well underwater for long periods of time with minimal degradation, and their ease of scalability, drew the authors ' attention. A simplified modal analysis of a partially submerged beam is proposed here as a first step to validate the potential of this type of technology for hydropower applications. Fiber Bragg grating sensors are used to obtain the beam's natural frequencies and to damp vibrations under different conditions. The results are compared with more established waterproof electric strain gauges and a laser vibrometer with good agreement. The presence of several sensors in a single fiber ensures high spatial resolution, fundamental to precisely determine vibration patterns, which is a main concern in this industry. In this work, the beam's vibration patterns have been successfully captured under different excitations and conditions.

[EN] This paper presents a technique to acquire measurements of curvature, twist and pose for two multi-core fibers; one with straight cores and the other with helical cores. Both the fibers have multiple fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors inscribed in the cores and the fibers are placed in known configurations in order to compare their measurement accuracy. For the curvature measurements both the fibers are placed in constant curvature slots; for the twist measurements, a set of twists are applied to each fiber and for the pose measurements the fibers are placed in molds of different shape. The mean curvature errors are 0.22 and 0.13 m(-1), in the helical and straight core fiber respectively. For the twist measurement the mean errors are 26.57 degrees 1m and 146.50 degrees 1m in the helical and straight core fiber, respectively. Lastly, the pose measurement consists of position and orientation where the orientation is represented in the axis-angle form. The mean position errors are 0.49 and 0.27 mm, the mean axis orientation errors are 0.12 degrees and 0.26 degrees degrees and the mean angle orientation errors are 1.10 degrees and 1.18 degrees, for the helical and straight core fiber, respectively. The results show that the twist measurement error is significantly low with the helical core fiber, thus helical core fiber is better suited than straight core fiber for applications where twist measurements are required.

[EN] Fiber Optic Shape Sensing is an innovative Optical Fiber Sensing Technology that uses a fiber optic cable to continuously track the 3D shape and position of a dynamic object (with unknown motion) in real-time without visual contact. This technology offers a valid alternative to existing shape sensing methods, thanks to a combination of advantages (including ease of installation, intrinsic safety, compactness, flexibility, electrically passive operation, resistance to harsh environments and corrosion, no need for proximity or computational or numerical models to reconstruct shape) that can bring remarkable improvements to the fields of Civil, Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Biomedicine and Medicine. A considerable research effort has been dedicated to this subject in the last twenty years. This paper presents an ambitious review of the current state of the art of Fiber Optic Shape Sensors (FOSS) based on Optical Multicore Fibers (MCF) or multiple optical single-core fibers with embedded strain sensors and provides a comprehensive analysis of a wide range of aspects, comprising: (1) existing alternative technologies; (2) an overview of optical fiber sensors (3) characteristics and advantages of fiber optic shape sensors; (4) historical achievements; (5) applications; (6) performance and error analysis; and (7) present and future perspectives.

© 2020 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permissíon from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting/republishing this material for advertisíng or promotional purposes, creating new collective works, for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other works., [EN] In this work, we present the architecture of a multiplexed refractive index (RI) sensing system based on the interrogation of Rayleigh backscattering. The RI sensors are fabricated by fiber wet-etching of a high-scattering MgO nanoparticle-doped fiber, without the need for a reflector or plasmonic element. Interrogation is performed by means of optical backscatter reflectometry(OBR), which allows a detection with a millimeter-level spatial resolution. Multiplexing consists of a simultaneous scan of multiple fibers, achieved by means of scattering-level multiplexing (SLMux) concept, which uses the backscattered power level in each location as a diversity element. The sensors fabricated have sensitivity in the order of 0.473-0.568 nm/RIU (in one sensing point) and have been simultaneously detected together with a distributed temperature sensing element for multi-parameter measurement. An experimental setup has been prepared to demonstrate the capability of each sensing region to operate without cross-talk, while operating multi-fiber detection.

[EN] Optical fibers containing multiple cores are being developed towards capacity enhancement in space-division multiplexed optical communication networks. In many cases, the fibers are designed for negligible direct coupling of optical power among the cores. The cores remain, however, embedded in a single, mechanically-unified cladding. Elastic (or acoustic) modes supported by the fiber cladding geometry are in overlap with multiple cores. Acoustic waves may be stimulated by light in any core through electrostriction. Once excited, the acoustic waves may induce photo-elastic perturbations to optical waves in other cores as well. Such opto-mechanical coupling gives rise to inter-core cross-phase modulation effects, even when direct optical crosstalk is very weak. The cross-phase modulation spectrum reaches hundreds of megahertz frequencies. It may consist of discrete and narrow peaks, or may become quasi-continuous, depending on the geometric layout. The magnitude of the effect at the resonance frequencies is comparable with that of intra-core cross-phase modulation due to Kerr nonlinearity. Two potential applications are demonstrated: single-frequency opto-electronic oscillators that do not require radio-frequency electrical filters, and point-sensing of liquids outside the cladding of multi-core fibers, where light cannot reach.

[EN] In the last decades, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) have become increasingly attractive to medical applications due to their unique properties such as small size, biocompatibility, immunity to electromagnetic interferences, high sensitivity and multiplexing capability. FBGs have been employed in the development of surgical tools, assistive devices, wearables, and biosensors, showing great potentialities for medical uses. This paper reviews the FBG-based measuring systems, their principle of work, and their applications in medicine and healthcare. Particular attention is given to sensing solutions for biomechanics, minimally invasive surgery, physiological monitoring, and medical biosensing. Strengths, weaknesses, open challenges, and future trends are also discussed to highlight how FBGs can meet the demands of next-generation medical devices and healthcare system.

[EN] This work describes the use of FBGs inscribed in optical fiber with electrodes for voltage sensing. The results show a quadratic voltage dependence. The device can be explored for a multipoint, single-ended voltage sensing device.

[EN] A plastic filament of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) was fabricated by extrusion. The mode confinement was simulated using numerical software. The idea is to study how the light intensity changes inside the plastic optical fiber (POF) when a bending in multiple directions is applied. The results obtained from the simulation were compared to the experimental observations. The non-circular shape of the POF allows sensing a rotation applied as well. The angle of rotation was obtained processing two images of the end facet of the fiber (one with the fiber in a reference position and one with the rotated fiber), using an intensity-based automatic image registration. The accuracy in the rotation calculation was of 0.01 degrees.

[EN] A compact optical fiber sensor by embedding fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) in strongly coupled multicore fiber (SCMCF) is proposed for multipoint and multiparameter sensing. To build the device, two FBGs with different peak wavelengths were inscribed in a segment of SCMCF. Then one end of the SCMCF was fusion spliced to a single-mode fiber (SMF) and the other end of the SCMCF was cleaved. In the SMF-SCMCF structure, two supermodes are excited, as a result, the reflection spectrum exhibits a sinusoidal pattern with two sharp peaks. The wavelength position of the FBGs and the supermode coupler can be extracted simultaneously. Two distinct FBGs inscribed in different positions of the SCMCF were used to demonstrate quasi-distributed multipoint sensing in the proposed structure. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of an optical fiber sensor that combines FBGs with SCMCF. The sensor here proposed has the advantage of compact size, low-cost, good mechanical strength and ease of interrogation.

[EN] This paper compares the performance of optical Multicore Fibres (MCFs) with inscribed Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBGs) used as curvature and shape sensors in relation to strain sensor length. Two fibre optic shape sensors, consisting of FBGs written in standard optical multicore fibre (diameter 124.5 mu m), were assembled in the Institute for Telecommunications and Multimedia Applications (iTEAM) of the Universitet Politecnica de Valencia. The optical sensors were then positioned on an aluminium mould and quasi-distributed curvature and shape sensing were performed to compare the accuracy of the arrays. It was found that the MCF shape sensor performance strongly depended on FBG length and that sensors based on long FBGs were significantly more accurate, showing that long FBGs can considerably improve shape sensor accuracy at equal grating densities and achieve substantially better performance. This is a great advantage when wavelength division multiplexing is used, when only a limited number of usable FBGs can be applied. These new results, applicable to both multiple single-core optical fibres and multicore optical fibres with embedded quasi-distributed strain sensors, show the connection between strain sensor length and accuracy, hardly taken into account in previous studies, and lay the foundation for the design of new long-FBG-based shape sensors.

[EN] This study presents a novel method for twisting compensation in optical shape sensing and first reports on twisting sensing by using Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG) inscribed in a spun Multicore Fiber (MCF). A simple approach, based on Saint-Venant's Torsion Theory for homogeneous circular cylinders, was developed to calculate the fiber twisting from the longitudinal strain sensed in the cores and reconstruct three-dimensional shape taking into account and compensating the twisting, by enhancing the mathematical formulation of the previous approaches. Then, a 44 mm-long pre-twisted fiber optic shape sensor was produced in the Institute for Telecommunications and Multimedia Applications (iTEAM) of the UPV, by writing four FBGs in a spun multicore fiber (diameter of 125.1 mu m) with a pre-twisting of 64.9 rotation/meter. Finally, a series of experiments were performed to validate the method and evaluate the sensor performance. The outcomes of the experiments, perfectly in accordance with the theory, prove the elastic behavior of the sensor, even at high levels of deformation. Moreover, the proposed Spun-MCF-based Shape Sensor resulted able to measure twisting with a sensitivity of 0.23 pm/degrees and accuracy of 4.81 degrees within a wide dynamic range of +/- 270 degrees (+/- 6136.4 degrees/m). These new results can notably enhance the accuracy of fiber optic shape sensors and lead to the design of new fiber geometries and sensors. (C) 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

© 2020 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permissíon from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting/republishing this material for advertisíng or promotional purposes, creating new collective works, for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other works., [EN] Multiple regenerated fiber Bragg gratings were inscribed in all the cores of a seven-core fiber in order to develop a multi-parameter sensor designed to operate at high temperatures. We experimentally showed the possibility of measuring strains of up to 1200 mu epsilon, curvatures from 0 degrees to 360 degrees and temperatures up to 1000 degrees C, with a maximum curvature magnitude of at least 4.6 m(-1) and a maximum sensibility of 96 pm/m(-1).

[ES] Este TFG trata sobre la investigación y el desarrollo de sensores basados en FBGs inscritas en fibras de varios núcleos cuya finalidad será estudiar la variación de la curvatura de la fibra en un medio acuático mediante la excitación de una onda acústica. Aquest TFG trata sobre la investigació i el desenvolupament de sensors basats en FBGs inscrites en fibres de diversos nuclis i la finalitat del qual serà estudiar la variació de la curvatura de la fibra en un medi aquàtic per mitjà de l'excitació d'una ona acústica., [EN] This TFG is about the research and development of FBG-based sensors inscribed in multicore fibers whose purpose will be to study the variation of the curvature of the fiber in an aquatic environment through the excitation of an acoustic wave.

[ES] Se va a estudiar el funcionamiento de un enlace de fibra óptica destinado a la transmisión de señales analógicas sobre una portadora de radiofrecuencia y los esquemas más eficientes de generación y detección de las señales., [EN] It is going to study the operation of a fiber optic link destined to the transmission of analog signals on a radiofrequency carrier and the most efficient schemes of generation and detection of the signals.

© 2019 Optical Society of America. One print or electronic copy may be made for personal use only. Systematic reproduction and distribution, duplication of any material in this paper for a fee or for commercial purposes, or modifications of the content of this paper are prohibited., [EN] We propose and experimentally demonstrate distributed microwave photonics signal processing over a few-mode fiber link by implementing 4-sample true time delay line operation. The inscription of a set of long period gratings at specific locations along the few-mode fiber allows the excitation of the higher-order modes while adjusting the individual sample group delays and amplitudes that are required for sampled true time delay line behavior. Since solely the injection of the fundamental mode at the few-mode fiber input is required, we render this signal processing system independent of any preceding fiber link that may be required in addition to distribute the signal. We experimentally validate the performance of the implemented true time delay line when applied to radiofrequency signal filtering.

© 2019 Optical Society of America. One print or electronic copy may be made for personal use only. Systematic reproduction and distribution, duplication of any material in this paper for a fee or for commercial purposes, or modifications of the content of this paper are prohibited., [EN] Quasi-distributed temperature sensing and single point vibration sensing were performed. Ultrashort pulses generated by a gain-switching laser were used to interrogate a fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) array sensor. Temperature changes were measured down to 1 degrees C with sub-centimeter spatial resolution. The advantages of our fast interrogation setup were exploited, as the higher frequency limit of a dynamic measure that can be sensed is limited by the time needed to generate the optical pulse and to acquire the data from the sensor. The experimental approach described in this paper can sense mechanical vibrations up to a frequency of 245 kHz and a strain resolution as low as 1.2 mu epsilon.

[EN] This paper describes a study of the influence of strain measurement uncertainty on sensing curvature and bending direction, considering one of the most widely used fiber geometries for sensing applications (7-core Multicore Fiber) with different core spacings (distance between outer cores and fiber axis). The Monte Carlo method was proposed to simulate the real measurement process and 33 simulations with 106 iterations were performed to determine the laws of propagation of strain measurement uncertainty in calculating curvature and bending direction. The outcomes, which show the strong influence of strain uncertainty and core spacing on the precision of Multicore Fiber sensors, can be used to support the design of new sensors or new fiber geometry and to predict their achievable performance.

[EN] Optical fiber sensors are now widely recognized as extremely reliable instruments to sense strain. Optical shape sensors consist of multiple single-core optical fibers or multicore optical fibers capable of sensing bending direction and curvature by comparing the longitudinal strain of different cores in an instrumented section and reconstructing the sensor shape. This paper describes a study on the effects of core position errors on the precision of optical shape sensors when measuring strain, bending direction and curvature, and identifies the role of measured curvature and core spacing (distance between section center and external cores), considering 7, 4, and 3-core fiber geometries, three of those most widely employed for sensing applications. The Monte Carlo technique was utilized to reproduce the measurement process. Forty-five simulations, including 3.10(6) trials, were carried out for each geometry with the aim of investigating the law of uncertainty propagation. The results of the analysis, applicable to both multiple single-core fibers and multicore optical sensors equipped with distributed or quasi-distributed strain-sensors, show the effects of core position uncertainty and will be useful for new sensor designs and user options by predicting the achievable performance of these devices.

[EN] We propose a setup for multiplexed distributed optical fiber sensors capable of resolving temperature distribution in thermo-therapies, with a spatial resolution of 2.5 mm over multiple fibers interrogated simultaneously. The setup is based on optical backscatter reflectometry (OBR) applied to optical fibers having backscattered power significantly larger than standard fibers (36.5 dB), obtained through MgO doping. The setup is based on a scattering-level multiplexing, which allows interrogating all the sensing fibers simultaneously, thanks to the fact that the backscattered power can be unambiguously associated to each fiber. The setup has been validated for the planar measurement of temperature profiles in ex vivo radiofrequency ablation, obtaining the measurement of temperature over a surface of 96 total points (4 fibers, 8 sensing points per cu). The spatial resolution obtained for the planar measurement allows extending distributed sensing to surface, or even three-dimensional, geometries performing temperature sensing in the tissue with millimeter resolution in multiple dimensions.

© 2019 Optical Society of America. One print or electronic copy may be made for personal use only. Systematic reproduction and distribution, duplication of any material in this paper for a fee or for commercial purposes, or modifications of the content of this paper are prohibited., [EN] We have designed and implemented a fiber optic shape sensor for high-energy ionizing environments based on multicore optical fibers. We inscribed two fiber Bragg gratings arrays in a seven-core optical fiber. One of the arrays has been inscribed in a hydrogen-loaded fiber and the other one in an unloaded fiber in order to have two samples with very different radiation sensitivity. The two samples were coiled in a metallic circular structure and were exposed to gamma radiation. We have analyzed the permanent radiation effects. The radiation-induced Bragg wavelength shift (RI-BWS) in the hydrogen-loaded fiber is near ten times higher than the one observed for the unloaded fiber, with a maximum wavelength shift of 415 pm. However, the use of the multiple cores permits to make these sensors immune to RI-BWS obtaining a similar curvature error in both samples of approximately 1 cm without modifying the composition of the fiber, pre-irradiation or thermal treatment.

[EN] This Letter presents a simple temperature-insensitive optical tilt sensor based on a single eccentric-core fiber Bragg grating (ECFBG). By partly inserting an ECFBG into a ceramic ferrule, the reflection spectrum of the ECFBG splits into two peaks as a result of the applied tilt angle. The magnitude and direction of inclination in one dimension can be determined by monitoring the wavelength separation between both peaks, which is inherently insensitive to temperature. The proposed tilt sensor has a good linear response within a wide dynamic range of +/- 45 degrees, with a sensitivity of 0.012 nm/degrees, with a resolution of 0.83 degrees, and with an accuracy of 0.41 degrees. Being free from any inherent mechanical joint/friction, along with the advantages of a compact structure, good repeatability, and low cost, the proposed sensor is highly suitable for practical engineering applications. (C) 2019 Optical Society of America

[ES] Se va a estudiar el funcionamiento de un enlace de fibra óptica destinado a la transmisión de señales analógicas (en nuestro caso señales RF) moduladas con una portadora óptica., [EN] We will study the operation of a fiber optic link intended for the transmission of analog signals (in our case RF signals) modulated with an optical carrier.

[EN] We propose and experimentally demonstrate distributed radiofrequency signal on a few-mode-fibre device. The inscription of long period gratings at specific locations along the fibre allows the excitation of the higher-order modes while adjusting the modal group delays required for sample true time delay line operation.

© 2019 Optical Society of America]. Users may use, reuse, and build upon the article, or use the article for text or data mining, so long as such uses are for non-commercial purposes and appropriate attribution is maintained. All other rights are reserved., [EN] We developed a temperature quasi-distributed sensing system interrogating a 500 weak fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) array of 5 meters. It was possible to sense temperature changes down to 1°C with sub-centimeter spatial resolution.

[ES] Se trata de desarrollar un sistema de monitorzación de la posición del usuario durante el sueño mediante la utilización de sensores de fibra óptica embebidos en un colchón

[ES] El presente trabajo muestra un análisis del Rango Dinámico Libre de Espurios SFDR de algunos esquemas de generación de señales ópticas en bandas milimétricas, así como también se evalúa el desempeño de los esquemas propuestos para la transmisión de señales OFDM en enlaces ópticos de fronthaul utilizando radio analógica sobre fibra., [EN] This work shows an analysis of the SFDR Spurious Free Dynamic Range of four optical signal generation schemes in millimeter bands, as well as the performance of the proposed schemes for the transmission of OFDM signals in fronthaul optical links using analog radio over fiber

[ES] Los sensores ópticos son dispositivos fotónicos sensibles a determinadas magnitudes que se usan precisamente para medir, ya sea de forma absoluta o relativa, esas magnitudes. Medir la temperatura, la presión, la tensión, la humedad o la presencia de un determinado gas son algunas de las funcionalidades que llevan a cabo estos sensores. A lo largo de las últimas décadas multitud de sensores y técnicas de interrogación han sido desarrolladas, lo que ha tenido un increíble impacto en multitud de áreas. Uno de los ejemplos más claro es la arquitectura civil, donde los sensores fotónicos juegan un papel fundamental en la monitorización del estado de las estructuras. A pesar de los buenos resultados conseguidos por los sensores ópticos hasta la fecha, las técnicas de interrogación desarrolladas hasta ahora muestran algunas desventajas. Tiempos de medida altos, baja resolución o una gran complejidad son algunas de ellas. En esta tesis doctoral se presenta el diseño y caracterización de diversos sensores fotónicos basados en las ya conocidas redes de difracción de Bragg así como la implementación de nuevas técnicas de interrogación de dichos sensores para intentar eliminar o reducir esas desventajas. Las técnicas de interrogación desarrolladas en este trabajo se basan en la fotónica de microondas, donde la interacción entre las señales ópticas y eléctricas se usa para detectar en este caso los cambios en una determinada magnitud. Las técnicas desarrolladas en este trabajo buscan ser lo más versátiles y escalables posibles para así poder adaptarse a los requerimientos de diferentes escenarios. Encontramos así técnicas que permiten interrogar a miles de sensores con una gran resolución y sensibilidad así como también técnicas de interrogación de sensores puntuales con una enorme sensibilidad y simplicidad tanto en la interrogación como en el sistema usado para ello. También están presentes los resultados obtenidos mediante la colaboración con el instituto de investigació, [CA] Els sensors òptics son dispositius fotònics sensibles a determinades magnituds que s'usen precisament per a mesurar, ja siga de forma absoluta o relativa, aquestes magnituds. Mesurar la temperatura, la pressió, la tensió, la humitat o la presència d'un determinat gas són algunes de les funcionalitats que realitzen aquestos sensors. Al llarg de les últimes dècades multitud de sensors i tècniques d'interrogació han sigut desenvolupades, i això ha tingut un impacte increïble a multitud d'àrees. Un dels exemples més clar es l'arquitectura civil, on aquestos sensors juguen un paper fonamental en la monitoratge de l'estat de les estructures. Encara que els resultats aconseguits han sigut bons, les tècniques d'interrogació desenvolupades fins ara mostren alguns desavantatges. Temps de mesurament alt, baixa resolució o una gran complexitat són algun d'ells. A aquesta tesi doctoral es presenta el disseny i caracterització de diversos sensors fotònics basats en les ja conegudes xarxes de difracció de Bragg així com l'implementació de noves tècniques d'interrogació per a intentar eliminar o reduir aquestos inconvenients. Les tècniques d'interrogació desenvolupades en aquest treball es basen en la fotònica de microones, on l'interacció entre les senyals òptiques i elèctriques s'usa per a detectar en aquest cas els canvis en una determinada magnitud. Les tècniques desenvolupades en aquest treball busquen ser el més versàtils i escalables possibles per a poder adaptar-se als requeriments dels diferents escenaris. Trobem així tècniques que permeten interrogar milers de sensors amb una gran resolució i sensitivitat però també tècniques que permeten interrogar sensors puntuals amb una increïble sensitivitat mostrant una gran simplicitat en el seu disseny. També estan presents els resultats obtinguts mitjançant la col¿laboració amb l'institut d'investigació suec ACREO per al desenvolupament d'un sensor de camp eléctric basat en FBGs i en fibres polaritzades., [EN] Optical sensors are photonic devices sensitive to different magnitudes that are used precisely to measure, in an absolute or a relative way, these magnitudes. These optical sensors are nowadays used to measure temperature, pressure, strain, humidity or the presence of a particular gas. In the past few decades a multitude of photonic sensors and different interrogation techniques have been developed, which had a great impact in dozens of different fields. One of the best examples is civil architecture, in which photonic sensors play a fundamental role in order to monitor the condition of the structures. Despite of the good results showed by photonic sensors, the interrogation techniques used show different drawbacks. A large measurement time, low resolution or great complexity are some of them. In this doctoral thesis the design and characterization of a set of different photonic sensors based on the already known fiber Bragg gratings, along with the implementation of new interrogation techniques, are used in order to eliminate or at least reduce these problems. The interrogation techniques developed in this work are based on Microwave Photonics techniques, in which the interaction between optical and electrical signals is used to detect in this case the changes in a particular magnitude. The techniques showed in this work have been designed in order to be as versatile and scalable as possible to have the opportunity to adapt to any requirement in different scenarios. In this work techniques that are able to interrogate hundreds or even thousands of sensors with great sensitivity and resolution can be found in addition to techniques that are developed to interrogate individual sensors with an enormous sensitivity. The work carried out in collaboration with the Swedish research institute ACREO, based on the development of an electric field sensor based on poled fibers together with FBGs is also present.

[EN] Multicore optical fibers are of great interest in the optical sensing field. Their core diversity and spatial distribution enable the development of sensing mechanisms that are not possible in single-core fibers. In this paper, we study the use of the inter-core crosstalk phenomena for the implementation of a surrounding refractive index (SRI) sensor. The selective inscription of a tilted fiber Bragg grating (TFBG) intentionally increases the inter-core crosstalk between the inscribed cores and makes it sensitive to the SRI. With this technique we simplify the measurement of the SRI and improve the identification and tracking of the excited cladding modes, as compared with the analysis of the transmission spectrum of a TFBG in single-core fibers. The proposed device is also sensitive to temperature. Temperature is obtained from the crosstalk wavelength shift with a measured sensitivity of 9.75 pm/degrees C. The SRI is obtained from the measurement of the crosstalk optical power. For increasing SRIs the cladding modes gradually fade, reducing the crosstalk optical power. We observed that the higher the tilt, the higher the sensor sensitivity. For a 7 degrees TFBG the SRI sensitivity obtained is -74.2 dB/RIU from 1.31 to 1.39 and -250.8 dB/RIU from 1.39 to 1.44.

[EN] Multicore optical fibers are especially attractive for the fabrication of curvature and shape sensors due to the spatial distribution of the different cores. Fiber Bragg gratings have been used in the past for the implementation of these sensors, however, despite their inherent properties, they have a very limited sensitivity. In this paper, we study the use of long period gratings (LPGs) for the implementation of a directional curvature sensor. We inscribed a set of three different LPGs in a seven core optical fiber using a selective inscription technique. We inscribed a single LPG in the external cores and an array of three LPGs in the central core. We have characterized the proposed sensor for strain, torsion, and curvature magnitude and direction. The proposed sensor shows a linear response for curvature magnitudes from 0 to 1.77 m(-1) with a maximum curvature sensitivity of -4.85 nm/m(-1) and shows a near sinusoidal behavior in all the cores with curvature directions from 0 degrees to 360 degrees. The sensor shows a good insensitivity to strain. The torsion in the multicore optical fibers can be detected and measured using the maximum attenuation of the LPGs in the external cores.

[EN] We present two implementations of fast, discrete incoherent optical frequency-domain reflectometers (I-OFDR) for the interrogation of equally spaced fiber Bragg grating (FBG) arrays, based on the determination of the array's radio frequency (RF) response at a sparse number of frequencies. FBG reflectivities are determined by use of the inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) of the sparse RF response, in a dynamic range limited by crosstalk induced by FBG positioning errors. The first implementation employs the complete, vector RF response at a number of frequencies equal to the number N of FBGs in the array. In the second, the introduction of a reference reflector allows for an interrogation using the power (phaseless) RF response in 4N - 1 frequencies. Demodulation based on IDFT leads to total interrogation times determined by the network analyzer scan time, which can be as low as 10 mu s per FBG. Depending on the interrogation technique, electrical bandwidth requirements are 12 GHz in our array with 10-cm separation. We implemented both techniques in a N = 10 array, inducing decays in reflectivity by 10 dB in one or several FBGs. Unambiguous detection of FBG decays was obtained in both interrogation methods. Additional tests performed on the measured reflectivities also show that measurement linearity is preserved in the 10-dB decay range. As discrete I-OFDR systems, the proposed techniques show the possibility to reach compromises between interrogation time and dynamic range or accuracy in reflectivity measurements, using the number of interrogation frequencies and the sensor topology.

[EN] An interrogation technique of cascaded FBG sensors based on a microwave photonics filtering technique under coherent regime is presented. The sensing information of a 5-m fiber coil containing 500 weak FBG with a similar central wavelength is retrieved. The FBGs are 9-mm long and the spatial separation between consecutive FBGs is 1 mm. The principle of operation is based on the calculation of the impulse response by recording the electrical frequency response of the system. Hot spot detection, location, and temperature measurement are demonstrated by experimental measurements with a temperature sensitivity of 0.6 dB/°C in a 10 °C range. Fifteen measurements are recorded in order to average them to reduce noise and smooth the saw tooth appearance typical of coherent measurements. The resolution of the proposed interrogation technique is related to the bandwidth of the electrical measurement. We have obtained a resolution of 20 cm for an electrical bandwidth of 1 GHz. The SNR was larger than 16 dB despite the fact that no amplification was used within the system.

En este trabajo se expone una vista general de la tecnología LiFi, técnicas de implementación de la misma así como sus ventajas y desventajas en el ámbito de las comunicaciones inalámbricas. Por otra parte, se plantea una aplicación real aplicable al sector IoT mediante el uso de componentes y elementos de bajo coste. Además, se diseña el enlace físico de la aplicación desde la selección de los distintos elementos que lo conforman hasta la realización de pruebas en distintas situaciones de uso del sistema. Por último, se proponen distintas alternativas en el sistema que permitirán mejorar las prestaciones del mismo de forma que este pueda ser aplicado en la mayoría de los escenarios reales., This final degree project exposes an overview of the LiFi technology, the implementation techniques and the advantages and disadvantages compared to other wireless communications. Moreover, it is exposed a real IoT application through the usage of low cost elements and electronical components. In addition, it is designed the physical link of the proposed system from the choice of the different elements to the development of the tests and trials in different scenarios. Finally, it is proposed some alternatives of the communication system to improve its performance and so that can be used in most of the real situations.

"© 2017 Optical Society of America. One print or electronic copy may be made for personal use only. Systematic reproduction and distribution, duplication of any material in this paper for a fee or for commercial purposes, or modifications of the content of this paper are prohibited", [EN] This paper is focused on the characterization of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor interrogation system based on a fiber ring laser with a semiconductor optical amplifier as the gain medium, and an in-loop electro-optical modulator. This system operates as a switchable active (pulsed) mode-locked laser. The operation principle of the system is explained theoretically and validated experimentally. The ability of the system to interrogate an array of different FBGs in wavelength and spatial domain is demonstrated. Simultaneously, the influence of several important parameters on the performance of the interrogation technique has been investigated. Specifically, the effects of the bandwidth and the reflectivity of the FBGs, the SOA gain, and the depth of the intensity modulation have been addressed. (C) 2017 Optical Society of America

"© 2017 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permissíon from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting/republishing this material for advertisíng or promotional purposes, creating new collective works, for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other works.", [EN] We propose and experimentally demonstrate an approach to perform high-resolution and temperature-insensitive interrogation of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based multicore fiber (MCF) curvature sensor using a microwave photonics filtering technique. By combining two reflected sample signals from the two FBGs inscribed in MCF and a dispersion device, a two-tap notch microwave photonic filter (MPF) is formed. The notch frequency of MPF is dependent on the time delay difference between the two FBG reflected signals, which is related to wavelength spacing of the two FBGs. Due to the wavelength spacing of the two FBGs is proportional to the curvature, the curvature can be readily interrogated by monitoring the notch frequency of MPF. The proposed interrogation scheme with the sensitivity of 92 MHz/m(-1) is achieved, whilst the sensitivity can be easily adjusted. Moreover, the proposed interrogation scheme is temperature insensitive.

[EN] We review the introduction of the space dimension into fiber-based technologies to implement compact and versatile signal processing solutions for microwave and millimeter wave signals. Built upon multicore fiber links and devices, this approach allows the realization of fiber-distributed signal processing in the context of fiber-wireless communications, providing both radiofrequency access distribution and signal processing in the same fiber medium. We present different space-division multiplexing architectures to implement tunable true time delay lines that can be applied to a variety of microwave photonics functionalities, such as signal filtering, radio beamsteering in phased array antennas or optoelectronic oscillation. In particular, this paper gathers our latest work on the following multicore fiber technologies: dispersion-engineered heterogeneous multicore fiber links for distributed tunable true time delay line operation; multicavity devices built upon the selective inscription of gratings in homogenous multicore fibers for compact true time delay line operation; and multicavity optoelectronic oscillation over both homogeneous and heterogeneous multicore fibers.

En este Trabajo Final de Máster (TFM) se ha realizado una caracterización y evaluación del sistema de medida de distancias absolutas mediante inteferometría heterodina. Se ha observado a aparición de efecto Speckle cuando muestras rugosas o inclinadas son utilizadas. El efecto Speckle es un efecto que empeora la precisión del sistema de medida añadiendo fluctuaciones en la fase inteferométrica del haz coherente utilizado. Con el fin de mitigar dicho efecto se ha añadido un conjunto de 4 detectores al sistema. Con este sistema se obtienen mejoras en la resolución de la medida de hasta el 60% para ángulos inferiores a 40º respecto al eje óptico; sin embargo, la mitigación del efecto Speckle no obtiene buenos resultados para muestras inclinadas 45º.

[EN] A simple, spectral-drift-insensitive interrogation scheme for a multicore fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based directional curvature sensor is proposed. The basic principle is to transform the wavelength shift of FBGs into the reflected power variation, which is accomplished by utilizing a broadband source with a sinusoidal spectrum. The closed-form expression of the relationship between the reflected power of the FBG and the corresponding peak wavelength is derived for the first time, to the best of our knowledge; therefore, the peak wavelength of the FBG can be precisely interrogated by using a single photodiode. The experimental results show that, with respect to conventional wavelength measurement by an optical spectrum analyzer, the demodulated wavelength error by our proposed interrogation scheme is within 20 pm. The proposed scheme is further extended to interrogate the direction and curvature using a multicore FBG-based curvature sensor; the interrogated curvature with an error less than 8% is achieved.

[EN] We implement "fiber-distributed signal processing" in the context of fiber-wireless communications by using different multicore fibers, providing both radio access distribution and microwave photonics signal processing in the same fiber medium.

This thesis describes a set of optical sensor based tools designed and implemented to be utilized in structure monitoring. There are a variety of bene ts brought by optic sensors and in this thesis they are exploited in the eld of civil engineering. The project has been realized with Calsens S.L., a rm with technological base and spin-off of the Polytechnical University of València. They have been working since 2004 in photonic technology research projects applied to processes and structures monitoring. In rst place, Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBGs) are introduced along with Multi-Core Fibres (MCFs). Then, a shape sensing algorithm is implemented to reconstruct the shape of a multi-core bre with FBGs inscribed in it. In order to test its performance, a theoretical study has been performed on it. Subsequently, a novel interrogation technique for MCF FBG-based sensors based on microwave photonics is demonstrated. Finally, a remote civil monitoring application is developed in the form of a web application., Este trabajo de fin de grado describe un conjunto de herramientas basadas en sensores ópticos, disenñadas e implementadas para ser utilizadas en el monitoreo de estructuras. Los sensores ópticos traen consigo una serie de bene cios que en esta tesis se explotan en el campo de la ingeniería civil. El proyecto se ha realizado con Calsens S.L., una empresa de base tecnológica y spin-off de la Universitat Politècnica de València, que trabaja desde el año 2004 en proyectos de investigación de tecnología fotónica aplicados a la monitorización de procesos y estructuras. En primer lugar, se introducen las redes de difracción de Bragg (FBG) junto a fibras ópticas multi-núcleo (MCF). A continuación, se implementa un algoritmo de sensado de forma para reconstruir la forma de una bra multi-núcleo con FBG inscritas. Con el objetivo de comprobar su funcionamiento, se ha realizado un estudio teórico sobre el mismo. Posteriormente se demuestra una nueva técnica de interrogación de sensores hechos con FBG inscritas en MCF basada en fotónica de microondas. Finalmente, una aplicación remota de monitoreo civil se ha desarrollado en forma de aplicación web.

[EN] We have inscribed a tilted fiber Bragg grating (TFBG) in selected cores of a multicore optical fiber. The presence of the TFBG permits to couple light from the incident guided mode to the cladding modes and to the neighbor cores and this interaction can be used for optical sensing. We have considered to measure different magnitudes: strain, curvature magnitude and direction and external refractive index. The curvature results show a linear dependence of the maximum crosstalk with the curvature magnitude with a sensitivity of 2.5dB/m-1 as the curvature magnitude increases and at the same time a wavelength shift of 70pm/m-1. Changes in the external refractive index gradually vanishes the cladding modes resonances and the crosstalk between the different cores obtaining a reduction of the 90% of the optical spectra integral area for refractive indexes between 1.398 to 1.474.

Monitoring temperatures in structures during fires provides valuable information to 1) the firemen engaged in extinguishing it, 2) those who assess its security, and 3) the organizations who have to decide on its possible repair, renovation or demolition. Developing sensors able to measure extremely high temperatures in actual blaze conditions is therefore a fundamental requirement. This paper proposes a new fiber optic sensor based on Regenerated Fiber Bragg Gratings specially designed to be embedded in concrete structures to monitor temperatures during fire events. A practical test was carried out on a 5.8m long beam subjected to the ISO-834 fire curve for 77 minutes under the typical loads borne by beams in conventional structures. Nine optical sensors were installed at the mid-span section of the beam and were submitted directly to flames and high temperature gradients (of the order of 200ºC/min) that make them measure maximum temperatures of 953º C. The temperatures recorded by the new sensors were compared with those obtained from electrical sensors (thermocouples) and a numerical model, with which they showed a good fit, except in those places in which concrete spalling caused distortions in the results and/or failure of the sensors. The paper thus demonstrates the viability of optical technologies in monitoring reinforced concrete during fires and analyzes sensor behavior to point out areas in which additional research is required.

[EN] The aim of this paper is to report the design of a low-cost plastic optical fiber (POF) pressure sensor, embedded in a mattress. We report the design of a multipoint sensor, a cheap alternative to the most common fiber sensors. The sensor is implemented using Arduino board, standard LEDs for optical communication in POF (¿ = 645 nm) and a silicon light sensor. The Super ESKA® plastic fibers were used to implement the fiber intensity sensor, arranged in a 4 × 4 matrix. During the breathing cycles, the force transmitted from the lungs to the thorax is in the order of tens of Newtons, and the respiration rate is of one breath every 2¿5 s (0.2¿0.5 Hz). The sensor has a resolution of force applied on a single point of 2.2¿4.5%/N on the normalized voltage output, and a bandwidth of 10 Hz, it is then suitable to monitor the respiration movements. Another issue to be addressed is the presence of hysteresis over load cycles. The sensor was loaded cyclically to estimate the drift of the system, and the hysteresis was found to be negligible.