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We present observations of the two closest globular clusters, NGC 6121 and NGC 6397, taken with the NIRISS detector of JWST. The combination of our new JWST data with archival Hubble Space Telescope (HST) images allows us to compute proper motions, disentangle cluster members from field objects, and probe the main sequence (MS) of the clusters down to <0.1 $M_\odot$ as well as the brighter part of the white-dwarf sequence. We show that theoretical isochrones fall short in modeling the low-mass MS and discuss possible explanations for the observed discrepancies. Our analysis suggests that the lowest-mass members of both clusters are significantly more metal-rich and oxygen-poor than their higher-mass counterparts. It is unclear whether the difference is caused by a genuine mass-dependent chemical heterogeneity, low-temperature atmospheric processes altering the observed abundances, or systematic shortcomings in the models. We computed the present-day local luminosity and mass functions of the two clusters; our data reveal a strong flattening of the mass function indicative of a significant preferential loss of low-mass stars in agreement with previous dynamical models for these two clusters. We have made our NIRISS astro-photometric catalogs and stacked images publicly available to the community., Comment: 15 pages, 12 figures, 2 tables. Accepted for publication in A&A on September 04, 2024. Astro-photometric catalogs and stacked images will be available at the CDS after the paper will be published

We present a study of the white dwarf (WD) cooling sequence (CS) in the globular cluster (GC) Omega Centauri, the primary goal of a dedicated Hubble Space Telescope (HST) programme. Our analysis has revealed that the peak at the termination of the WD CS is located at $m_{\rm F606W}$=30.1$\pm$0.2 (equivalent to $V$$\sim$31). The brighter part of Omega Centauri's WD CS is consistent with the presence of massive He-core WDs, in agreement with previous HST analyses with ultraviolet and blue filters. Comparative analyses of the WD luminosity function (LF) with theoretical counterparts have shown that a single-age population for the cluster is compatible with the data. However, an analysis of just the WD LF cannot entirely exclude the possibility of an age range, due to uncertainties in the present-day WD mass function, with a star formation history potentially spanning up to 5 billion years, predominantly comprising stars about 13 Gyr old, and with just a minority potentially as young as 8 Gyr. This underscores the need for global spectroscopic and photometric investigations that include simultaneously the WD populations together with the previous evolutionary phases to fully understand the cluster's diverse chemical compositions and ages., Comment: 10 pages, 9 figures. Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics on Sep 5, 2024

The Li-rich stars are a class of rare objects with A(Li) higher than that of other stars in the same evolutionary stage. Their origin is still debated and valuable routes are the Cameron-Fowler mechanism, mass transfer process in a binary system or engulfment of small bodies. Metal-poor ([Fe/H]<-1 dex) stars are only a small fraction of the entire population of Li-rich stars. We observed with MIKE at the Magellan Telescope the metal-poor ([Fe/H]=-3.95+-0.11 dex) giant star HE0057-5959, deriving A(Li)=+2.09+-0.07 dex. Such A(Li) is higher by about 1 dex than that of other stars in the same evolutionary stage. A previous analysis of the same target suggested that its high A(Li) reflects a still ongoing First Dredge-Up process. We revise the nature of HE0057-5959 by comparing its stellar parameters and A(Li) with appropriate stellar evolution models. This comparison rules out that HE0057-5959 is caught during its First Dredge-Up, being this latter already ended according to the parameters of this star. Its A(Li), remarkably higher than the typical lithium plateau drawn by similar giant stars, demonstrates that HE0057-5959 joins the class of the rare metal-poor Li-rich stars. HE0057-5959 is the most metal-poor Li-rich star discovered so far. We consider different scenarios to explain this star. No internal mixing able to activate the Cameron-Fowler mechanism is known for metal-poor stars at this evolutionary stage. Also the engulfment of planets is disfavored because such metal-poor stars should not host planets. Finally, HE0057-5959 is one of the most Na-rich among the Li-rich stars and we found that a strong excess of Na is common to the three Li-rich stars with [Fe/H]<-3 dex. This finding could support the scenario of mass transfer from a massive companion star in a binary system, even if we found no evidence of radial velocity variations., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A

Thanks to its exceptional near-infrared photometry, JWST can effectively contribute to the discovery, characterization, and understanding of multiple stellar populations in globular clusters, especially at low masses where the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) faces limitations. This paper continues the efforts of the JWST GO-1979 program in exploring the faintest members of the globular cluster NGC 6397. Here we show that the combination of HST and JWST data allows us to identify two groups of MS stars (MSa, the first-generation, and MSb, the second-generation group). We measured the ratio between the two groups and combined it with measurements from the literature focused on more central fields and more massive stars compared to our study. We find that the MSa and MSb stars are present in a $\approx$30-70 ratio regardless of the distance from the centre of the cluster and the mass of the stars used so far., Comment: 7 pages, 6 figures, 1 table, A&A accepted

We present James Webb Space Telescope observations of the globular cluster NGC 6397 and use them to extend to infrared wavelengths the characterization of the cluster's entire white dwarf (WD) cooling sequence (CS). The data allows us to probe fundamental astrophysical WD properties and to search for evidence in their colors for (or against) the existence of ancient planetary systems. The existing archival Hubble Space Telescope imaging data obtained ~18 years ago reach ultra-deep optical magnitudes (V~31) and allow us to derive a near-perfect separation between field and cluster members. We detect an apparent split in the lower part of the WD CS of NGC 6397. The red part of the WD CS, containing about 25% of the total, exhibits significant IR-excess of up to Delta m_F322W2 ~ 0.5 mag. These infrared excesses require both theoretical and observational follow-ups to confirm their veracity and to ascertain their true nature., Comment: 16 pages, 10+A2 figures. Accepted for publication on Astronomische Nachrichten on 2nd May 2024

There is plenty of evidence in the literature of significant discrepancies between the observations and models of metal-poor red giant branch stars, in particular regarding the effective temperature, teff, scale. We revisit the benchmark star HD 122563 using the most recent observations from Gaia Data Release 3, to investigate if these new constraints may help in resolving this discrepancy. We review the most recent spectroscopic determinations of the metallicity of HD 122563 [Fe/H], and provide a new assessment of its fundamental parameters, i.e. bolometric luminosity, teff, surface gravity, plus a photometric determination of its metal content. Using these constraints, we compare the position of the star in the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram with various recent sets of stellar evolution tracks. The H-R diagram analysis reveals a significant disagreement between observed and theoretical teff values, when adopting the most recent spectroscopic estimate of [Fe/H]. On the other hand, by using the photometric determination of [Fe/H] some of the selected sets of stellar tracks appear in fair agreement with observations. The sets with discrepant teff can be made to agree with observations either by modifying the prescription adopted to calculate the models' outer boundary conditions, and/or by reducing the adopted value of the mixing length parameter with respect to the solar-calibration. A definitive assessment of whether the teff scale of metal-poor stellar red giant branch models is consistent with observations requires an even more accurate determination of the fundamental parameters of HD 122563 and also a larger sample of calibrators. From the theoretical side, it is crucial to minimise the current uncertainties in the treatment (boundary conditions, temperature gradient) of the outer layers of stellar models with convective envelopes., Comment: accepted for publication in A&A

We exploit the astro-photometric dataset of the multi-epoch infrared parallel field of a $\textit{Hubble Space Telescope}$ Large Programme aimed at studying the faintest stars of the globular cluster NGC$\,$6752 to determine the luminosity and mass functions of the multiple stellar populations of this cluster. Thanks to the measurement of proper motions and deeper completeness, the results presented in this paper represent a significant improvement over those of previous studies. We successfully derived membership probabilities reaching stars as faint as $m_{\rm F160W} \sim 25$, allowing us to reliably distinguish the three main stellar populations detected within this cluster. We employed a new set of model isochrones that have been individually fit to the colour-magnitude diagram of each population. We present a comprehensive analysis of the luminosity and mass functions for three stellar populations within NGC$\,$6752. Notably, our findings reveal differences in the present-day luminosity and mass functions of first-generation and second-generation stars; these differences are consistent with the manifestation of the effects of dynamical processes acting on populations with different initial spatial distributions. Finally, we publicly release the catalogues with positions, photometry, proper motions, and memberships probabilities, as well as the stacked-image atlases and all newly calculated stellar models., Comment: 25 pages, 17 figures, 5 tables. Accepted for publication in AN

Classical Cepheids (DCEPs) are important astrophysical objects not only as standard candles for the determination of the cosmic distance ladder but also as a test-bed for the stellar evolution theory, thanks to the connection between their pulsation (periods, amplitudes) and stellar (luminosity, mass, effective temperature, metallicity) parameters. We aim to unveil the nature of the Galactic DCEP OGLE-GD-CEP-0516 and other DCEPs showing an enhanced abundance of lithium in their atmospheres. We have collected a high-resolution spectrum for OGLE-GD-CEP-0516 with UVES@VLT. Accurate stellar parameters: effective temperature, gravity, micro- and macro-turbulence, radial velocity, and metal abundances were measured for this star, using spectral synthesis techniques based on LTE plane-parallel atmospheric model. We measured a chemical pattern with most elements under-abundant compared with the Sun, i.e. [Fe/H]\,=\,$-$0.54\,$\pm$\,0.16~dex, [C/H]\,=\,$-$0.45\,$\pm$\,0.05~dex, or [Mg/H]\,=\,$-$0.40\,$\pm$\,0.16~dex among others. In particular, we measured a lithium abundance A(Li)\,=\,3.06\,$\pm$\,0.10~dex for OGLE-GD-CEP-0516, which makes this object the sixth Li-rich object among the Milky Way DCEPs. Our results favour the scenario in which the six Galactic Li-rich DCEPs are first-crossing the instability strip having had slowly-rotating progenitors during their main sequence phase. This study explored the link between lithium abundance and the pulsation period in classical Cepheids. It found that brighter Cepheids, indicative of higher mass, show enhanced lithium abundance, contrary to predictions from evolutionary models considering rotation. Additionally, an analysis of lithium abundance versus [Fe/H] revealed a lack of significant correlation, contradicting expectations from galactic chemical evolution (GCE) models., Comment: 5 pages, 4 figures (plus 3 in appendix). Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics Letters. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2006.03299

In the third paper of this series aimed at developing the tools for analysing resolved stellar populations using the cameras on board of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), we present a detailed multi-band study of the 2 Gyr Galactic open cluster NGC 2506. We employ public calibration data-sets collected in multiple filters to: (i) derive improved effective Point Spread Functions (ePSFs) for ten NIRCam filters; (ii) extract high-precision photometry and astrometry for stars in the cluster, approaching the main-sequence (MS) lower mass of ~0.1 Msun; and (iii) take advantage of the synergy between JWST and Gaia DR3 to perform a comprehensive analysis of the cluster's global and local properties. We derived a MS binary fraction of ~57.5 %, extending the Gaia limit (~0.8 Msun) to lower masses (~0.4 Msun) with JWST. We conducted a study on the mass functions (MFs) of NGC 2506, mapping the mass segregation with Gaia data, and extending MFs to lower masses with the JWST field. We also combined information on the derived MFs to infer an estimate of the cluster present-day total mass. Lastly, we investigated the presence of white dwarfs (WDs) and identified a strong candidate. However, to firmly establish its cluster membership, as well as that of four other WD candidates and of the majority of faint low-mass MS stars, further JWST equally deep observations will be required. We make publicly available catalogues, atlases, and the improved ePSFs., Comment: 20 pages, 17 figures (5 in low resolution), 4 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on August 5, 2023. PSF models, catalogs and stacked images are publicly available at https://web.oapd.inaf.it/bedin/files/PAPERs_eMATERIALs/JWST/Paper_03/

We use new observations from the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope to study the white dwarf cooling sequence of the open cluster M37, a cluster that displays an extended main sequence turn-off and, according to a recent photometric analysis, also a spread of initial chemical composition. By taking advantage of a first epoch collected in 1999 with the same telescope, we have been able to calculate proper motions for sources as faint as g ~ 26 (about ~ 6 magnitudes fainter than the Gaia limit), allowing us to separate cluster members from field stars. This has enabled us to isolate a sample of the white dwarf population of M37, reaching the end of the cooling sequence (at g ~ 23.5). The here-derived atlas and calibrated catalogue of the sources in the field of view is publicly released as supplementary on-line material. Finally, we present an exhaustive comparison of the white dwarf luminosity function with theoretical models, which has allowed us to exclude the age-spread scenario as the main responsible for the extended turnoff seen in the cluster colour-magnitude-diagram., Comment: 10 pages, 13 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2023, June 15

Our recent multi-band photometric study of the colour width of the lower main sequence of the open cluster M37 has revealed the presence of a sizeable initial chemical composition spread in the cluster. If initial chemical composition spreads are common amongst open clusters, this would have major implications for cluster formation models and the foundation of the chemical tagging technique. Here we present a study of the unevolved main sequence of the open cluster M38, employing Gaia DR3 photometry and astrometry, together with newly acquired Sloan photometry. We have analysed the distribution of the cluster's lower main sequence stars with a differential colour-colour diagram made of combinations of Gaia and Sloan magnitudes, like in the study of M37. We employed synthetic stellar populations to reproduce the observed trend of M38 stars in this diagram, and found that the observed colour spreads can be explained simply by the combined effect of differential reddening across the face of the cluster and the presence of unresolved binaries. There is no need to include in the synthetic sample a spread of initial chemical composition as instead necessary to explain the main sequence of M37. Further photometric investigations like ours, as well as accurate differential spectroscopic analyses on large samples of open clusters, are necessary to understand whether chemical abundance spreads are common among the open cluster population., Comment: 8 pages, 10 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2023, June 07

We use the ESPRESSO spectrograph at the Very Large Telescope to measure velocity shifts and gravitational redshifts of eight bona fide Hyades white dwarfs, with an accuracy better than 1.5 percent. By comparing the gravitational redshift measurements of the mass-to-radius ratio with the same ratios derived by fitting the \textit{Gaia} photometry with theoretical models, we find an agreement to better than one per cent. It is possible to reproduce the observed white dwarf cooling sequence and the trend of the mass-to-radius ratios as a function of colour using isochrones with ages between 725 and 800 Myr, tuned for the Hyades. One star, EGGR\,29, consistently stands out in all diagrams, indicating that it is possibly the remnant of a blue straggler. We also computed mass-to-radius ratios from published gravities and masses, determined from spectroscopy. The comparison between photometric and spectroscopic stellar parameters reveals that spectroscopic effective temperature and gravity are systematically larger than the photometric values. Spectroscopic mass-to-radius ratios disagree with those measured from gravitational redshift, indicating the presence of systematics affecting the white dwarf parameters derived from the spectroscopic analysis., Comment: MNRAS, accepted for pubblication

We present our final study of the white dwarf cooling sequence (WD CS) in the globular cluster NGC 6752. The investigation is the main goal of a dedicated Hubble Space Telescope large Program, for which all the observations are now collected. The WD CS luminosity function (LF) is confirmed to peak at m_F606W = 29.3+/-0.1, consistent within uncertainties with what has been previously reported, and is now complete down to m_F606W~29.7. We have performed robust and conclusive comparisons with model predictions that show how the theoretical LF for hydrogen envelope WD models closely follow the shape of the empirical LF. The magnitude of the peak of the observed LF is matched with ages between 12.7 and 13.5 Gyr, consistent with the cluster age derived from the main sequence turn off and subgiant branch. We also find that the impact of multiple populations within the cluster on the WD LF for m_F606W below 27.3 is negligible, and that the presence of a small fraction of helium envelope objects is consistent with the data. Our analysis reveals a possible hint of an underestimate of the cooling timescales of models in the magnitude range 28.1 < m_F606W < 28.9. Finally, we find that hydrogen envelope models calculated with a new tabulation of electron conduction opacities in the transition between moderate and strong degeneracy provide WD ages that are too small in comparison to the Main Sequence turnoff age., Comment: 16 pages, 13 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2022, November 4. Associated files soon at this https://web.oapd.inaf.it/bedin/files/PAPERs_eMATERIALs/NGC6752_IV/

Photometric investigations have revealed that Galactic globular clusters exhibit internal metallicity variations amongst the so-called first-population stars, until now considered to have a homogeneous initial chemical composition. This is not fully supported by the sparse spectroscopic evidence, which so far gives conflicting results. Here, we present a high-resolution re-analysis of five stars in the Galactic globular cluster NGC 2808 taken from the literature. Target stars are bright red giants with nearly identical atmospheric parameters belonging to the first population according to their identification in the chromosome map of the cluster, and we have measured precise differential abundances for Fe, Si, Ca, Ti, and Ni to the ~0.03 dex level. Thanks to the very small uncertainties associated to the differential atmospheric parameters and abundance measurements, we find that target stars span a range of iron abundance equal to 0.25 +/- 0.06 dex. The individual elemental abundances are highly correlated with the position of the star along the extended sequence described by first population objects in the cluster chromosome map: bluer stars have a lower iron content. This agrees with inferences from the photometric analysis. The differential abundances for all other elements also show statistically significant ranges that point to intrinsic abundance spreads. The Si, Ca, Ti, and Ni variations are highly correlated with iron variations and the total abundance spreads for all elements are consistent within the error bars. This suggests a scenario in which short-lived massive stars exploding as supernovae contributed to the self-enrichment of the gas in the natal cloud while star formation was still ongoing., Comment: 9 pages, 9 figures. Accepted for publication in A&A

As the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has become fully operational, early-release data are now available to begin building the tools and calibrations for precision point-source photometry and astrometry in crowded cluster environments. Here, we present our independent reduction of NIRCam imaging of the metal-poor globular cluster M92, which were collected under Director's Discretionary Early Release Science programme ERS-1334. We derived empirical models of the Point Spread Function (PSF) for filters F090W, F150W, F277W, and F444W, and find that these PSFs: (i) are generally under-sampled (FWHM~2 pixel) in F150W and F444W and severely under-sampled (FWHM~1 pixel) in F090W and F277W; (ii) have significant variation across the field of view, up to ~15-20 %; and (iii) have temporal variations of ~3-4 % across multi-epoch exposures. We deployed our PSFs to determine the photometric precision of NIRCam for stars in the crowded, central regions of M92, measured to be at the ~0.01 mag level. We use these data to construct the first JWST colour-magnitude diagrams of a globular cluster. Employing existing stellar models, we find that the data reach almost the bottom of the M92 main sequence (~0.1 M$_{\odot}$), and reveal 24 white dwarf candidate members of M92 in the brightest portion of the white dwarf cooling sequence. The latter are confirmed through a cross-match with archival HST UV and optical data. We also detect the presence of multiple stellar populations along the low-mass main sequence of M92., Comment: 14 pages, 11 figures, 2 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on September 13, 2022. PSF models, catalogs and stacked images are publicly available at https://web.oapd.inaf.it/bedin/files/PAPERs_eMATERIALs/JWST/Paper_01/

Recent Gaia photometry of the open cluster M37 have disclosed the existence of an extended main-sequence turn off -- like in Magellanic clusters younger than about 2 Gyr -- and a main sequence that is broadened in colour beyond what is expected from the photometric errors, at magnitudes well below the region of the extended turn off, where neither age differences nor rotation rates (the candidates to explain the extended turn off phenomenon) are expected to play a role. Moreover, not even the contribution of unresolved binaries can fully explain the observed broadening. We investigated the reasons behind this broadening by making use of synthetic stellar populations and differential colour-colour diagrams using a combination of Gaia and Sloan filters. From our analysis we have concluded that the observed colour spread in the Gaia colour-magnitude diagram can be reproduced by a combination of either a metallicity spread Delta[Fe/H] ~ 0.15 plus a differential reddening across the face of the cluster spanning a total range DeltaE (B - V) ~ 0.06, or a spread of the initial helium mass fraction DeltaY ~ 0.10 plus a smaller range of reddening DeltaE (B - V) ~ 0.03. High-resolution differential abundance determinations of a sizeable sample of cluster stars are necessary to confirm or exclude the presence of a metal abundance spread. Our results raise the possibility that also individual open clusters, like globular clusters and massive star clusters, host stars born with different initial chemical compositions., Comment: 10 pages, 10 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2022, August 31, manuscript ID. MN-22-2637-MJ

We present an astrometric and photometric wide-field study of the Galactic open star cluster M37 (NGC 2099). The studied field was observed with ground-based images covering a region of about four square degrees in the Sloan-like filters ugi. We exploited the Gaia catalogue to calibrate the geometric distortion of the large field mosaics, developing software routines that can be also applied to other wide-field instruments. The data are used to identify the hottest white dwarf (WD) member candidates of M37. Thanks to the Gaia EDR3 exquisite astrometry we identified seven such WD candidates, one of which, besides being a high-probability astrometric member, is the putative central star of a planetary nebula. To our knowledge, this is a unique object in an open cluster, and we have obtained follow-up low-resolution spectra that are used for a qualitative characterisation of this young WD. Finally, we publicly release a three-colour atlas and a catalogue of the sources in the field of view, which represents a complement of existing material., Comment: 13 pages, 4 table, 13 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2022, July 6, manuscript ID. MN-22-2264-MJ

Recently, a new class of white dwarfs (``slowly cooling WDs'') has been identified in the globular cluster M13. The cooling time of these stars is increased by stable thermonuclear hydrogen burning in their residual envelope. These WDs are thought to be originated by horizontal branch (HB) stars populating the HB blue tail, which skipped the asymptotic giant branch phase. To further explore this phenomenon, we took advantage of deep photometric data acquired with the Hubble Space Telescope in the near-ultraviolet and investigate the bright portion of the WD cooling sequence in NGC 6752, another Galactic globular cluster with metallicity, age and HB morphology similar to M13. The normalized WD luminosity function derived in NGC 6752 turns out to be impressively similar to that observed in M13, in agreement with the fact that the stellar mass distribution along the HB of these two systems is almost identical. As in the case of M13, the comparison with theoretical predictions is consistent with $\sim 70\%$ of the investigated WDs evolving at slower rates than standard, purely cooling WDs. Thanks to its relatively short distance from Earth, NGC 6752 photometry reaches a luminosity one order of a magnitude fainter than the case of M13, allowing us to sample a regime where the cooling time delay, with respect to standard WD models, reaches $\sim 300$ Myr. The results presented in this paper provide new evidence for the existence of slowly cooling WDs and further support to the scenario proposing a direct causal connection between this phenomenon and the horizontal branch morphology of the host stellar cluster., Comment: 14 pages, 9 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ

The surface lithium abundance A(Li) of warm metal-poor dwarf stars exhibits a narrow plateau down to [Fe/H]~-2.8 dex, while at lower metallicities the average value drops by 0.3 dex with a significant star-by-star scatter (called lithium meltdown). This behaviour is in conflict with predictions of standard stellar evolution models calculated with the initial A(Li) provided by the standard Big Bang nucleosynthesis. The lower red giant branch (LRGB) stars provide a complementary tool to understand the initial A(Li) distribution in metal-poor stars. We have collected a sample of high-resolution spectra of 58 LRGB stars spanning a range of [Fe/H] between ~ -7.0 dex and ~ -1.3 dex. The LRGB stars display an A(Li) distribution clearly different from that of the dwarfs, without signatures of a meltdown and with two distinct components: (a) a thin A(Li) plateau with an average A(Li)=1.09+-0.01 dex (sigma=0.07 dex), and (b) a small fraction of Li-poor stars with A(Li) lower than ~0.7 dex. The A(Li) distribution observed in LRGB stars can be reconciled with an initial abundance close to the cosmological value, by including an additional chemical element transport in stellar evolution models. The required efficiency of this transport allows us to match also the Spite plateau lithium abundance measured in the dwarfs. The emerging scenario is that all metal-poor stars formed with the same initial A(Li) but those that are likely the product of coalescence or that experienced binary mass transfer and show lower A(Li) . We conclude that A(Li) in LRGB stars is qualitatively compatible with the cosmological A(Li) value and that the meltdown observed in dwarf stars does not reflect a real drop of the abundance at birth., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A, 7 pages, 3 figures, 2 tables

We present the result of a detailed analysis of HST UV and optical deep images of the massive and young (~1.5 Gyr) stellar cluster NGC 1783 in the Large Magellanic Cloud. This system does not show evidences of multiple populations (MPs) along the red giant branch (RGB) stars. However, we find that the cluster main-sequence (MS) shows evidence of a significant broadening (50% larger than what is expected from photometric errors) along with hints of possible bimodality in the MP sensitive (F343N - F438W, F438W) color-magnitude-diagram (CMD). Such an effect is observed in all color combinations including the F343N filter, while it is not found in the optical CMDs. This observational evidence suggests we might have found light-element chemical abundance variations along the MS of NGC 1783, which represents the first detection of MPs in a system younger than 2 Gyr. A comparison with isochrones including MP-like abundances shows that the observed broadening is compatible with a N abundance enhancement of Delta([N/Fe]) ~0.3. Our analysis also confirms previous results about the lack of MPs along the cluster RGB. However, we find that the apparent disagreement between the results found on the MS and the RGB is compatible with the mixing effects linked to the first dredge-up. This study provides new key information about the MP phenomenon and suggests that star clusters form in a similar way at any cosmic age., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJL

White Dwarfs (WDs) are the final evolutionary product of the vast majority of stars in the Universe. They are electron-degenerate structures characterized by no stable thermonuclear activity, and their evolution is generally described as a pure cooling process. Their cooling rate is adopted as cosmic chronometer to constrain the age of several Galactic populations, including the disk, globular and open clusters. By analysing high-resolution photometric data of two twin Galactic globular clusters (M3 and M13), we find a clear-cut and unexpected over-abundance of bright WDs in M13. Theoretical models suggest that, consistently with the horizontal branch morphology, this over-abundance is due to a slowing down of the cooling process in ~70% of the WDs in M13, caused by stable thermonuclear burning in their residual hydrogen-rich envelope. This is the first observational evidence of quiescent thermonuclear activity occurring in cooling WDs and it brings new attention on the use of the WD cooling rate as cosmic chronometer for low metallicity environments., Comment: 28 pages, 11 figures, published in Nature Astronomy

In the fourth paper of this series, we present -- and publicly release -- the state-of-the-art catalogue and atlases for the two remaining parallel fields observed with the Hubble Space Telescope for the large programme on omega Centauri. These two fields are located at ~12' from the centre of the globular cluster (in the West and South-West directions) and were imaged in filters from the ultraviolet to the infrared. Both fields were observed at two epochs separated by about 2 years that were used to derive proper motions and to compute membership probabilities., Comment: 15 pages, 11 figures (low resolution). Electronic on-line material at this url https://web.oapd.inaf.it/bedin/files/PAPERs_eMATERIALs/wCen_HST_LargeProgram/P04/ ; Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2021 May 18th, available at this url https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MNRAS.505.3549S/abstract

We discuss the largest and most homogeneous spectroscopic dataset of field RR Lyrae variables (RRLs) available to date. We estimated abundances using both high-resolution and low-resolution ({\Delta S} method) spectra for fundamental (RRab) and first overtone (RRc) RRLs. The iron abundances for 7,941 RRLs were supplemented with similar literature estimates available, ending up with 9,015 RRLs (6,150 RRab, 2,865 RRc). The metallicity distribution shows a mean value of <[Fe/H]> = -1.51\pm0.01, and {\sigma}(standard deviation)= 0.41 dex with a long metal-poor tail approaching [Fe/H] = -3 and a sharp metal-rich tail approaching solar iron abundance. The RRab variables are more metal-rich (<[Fe/H]>ab = -1.48\pm0.01, {\sigma} = 0.41 dex) than RRc variables (<[Fe/H]>c = -1.58\pm0.01, {\sigma} = 0.40 dex). The relative fraction of RRab variables in the Bailey diagram (visual amplitude vs period) located along the short-period (more metal-rich) and the long-period (more metal-poor) sequences are 80% and 20\%, while RRc variables display an opposite trend, namely 30\% and 70\%. We found that the pulsation period of both RRab and RRc variables steadily decreases when moving from the metal-poor to the metal-rich regime. The visual amplitude shows the same trend, but RRc amplitudes are almost two times more sensitive than RRab amplitudes to metallicity. We also investigated the dependence of the population ratio (Nc/Ntot) of field RRLs on the metallicity and we found that the distribution is more complex than in globular clusters. The population ratio steadily increases from ~0.25 to ~0.36 in the metal-poor regime, it decreases from ~0.36 to ~0.18 for -1.8 < [Fe/H] < -0.9 and it increases to a value of ~0.3 approaching solar iron abundance., Comment: 22 pages, 13 figures, 3 tables. Accepted for publication in ApJ

We present a multi-instrument spectroscopic analysis of the unique Li/Na-rich giant star 25664 in Omega Centauri using spectra acquired with FLAMES-GIRAFFE, X-SHOOTER, UVES and HARPS. Li and Na abundances have been derived from the UVES spectrum using transitions weakly sensitive to non-local thermodynamic equilibrium and assumed isotopic ratio. This new analysis confirms the surprising Li and Na abundances of this star (A(Li) =+2.71+-0.07 dex, [Na/Fe]=+1.00+-0.05 dex). Additionally, we provide new pieces of evidence for its chemical characterisation. The 12C/13C isotopic ratio (15+-2) shows that this star has not yet undergone the extra-mixing episode usually associated with the red giant branch bump. Therefore, we can rule out the scenario of efficient deep extra-mixing during the red giant branch phase envisaged to explain the high Li and Na abundances. Also, the star exhibits high abundances of both C and N ([C/Fe]=+0.45+-0.16 dex and [N/Fe]=+0.99+-0.20 dex), not compatible with the typical C-N anticorrelation observed in globular cluster stars. We found evidence of a radial velocity variability in 25664, suggesting that the star could be part of a binary system, likely having accreted material from a more massive companion when the latter was evolving in the AGB phase. Viable candidates for the donor star are AGB stars with 3-4 Msun and super-AGB stars (~7-8 Msun), both able to produce Li- and Na-rich material. Alternatively, the star could be formed from the pure ejecta of a super-AGB stars, before the dilution with primordial gas occurs., Comment: Accepted for publication on A&A

We present ESO/VLT FORS2 low resolution spectroscopy of red giant branch stars in three massive, intermediate age ($\sim 1.7-2.3$ Gyr) star clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud. We measure CH and CN index bands at 4300A, and 3883A, as well as [C/Fe] and [N/Fe] abundance ratios for 24, 21 and 12 member stars of NGC 1978, NGC 1651, NGC 1783, respectively. We find a significant intrinsic spread in CN in NGC 1978 and NGC 1651, a signal of multiple stellar populations (MPs) within the clusters. On the contrary, we report a null CN spread in NGC 1783 within our measurement precision. For NGC 1978, we separated the two populations in the CN distribution and we translated the CN spread into an internal N variation $\Delta$[N/Fe]$=0.63\pm0.49$ dex. For NGC 1651 and NGC 1783, we put upper limits on the N abundance variations of $\Delta$[N/Fe]$\leq 0.2, 0.4$ dex, respectively. The spectroscopic analysis confirms previous results from HST photometry, where NGC 1978 was found to host MPs in the form of N spreads, while slightly younger clusters (e.g. NGC 1783, $<$ 2 Gyr old) were not, within the limits of the uncertainties. It also confirms that intermediate age massive clusters show lower N abundance variations with respect to the ancient globular clusters, although this is in part due to the effect of the first dredge up at these stellar masses, as recently reported in the literature. We stress the importance of future studies to estimate the initial N abundance variations, free of stellar evolutionary mixing processes, by observing unevolved stars in young clusters., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS, 15 pages, 11 figures

We provide the largest and most homogeneous sample of $\alpha$-element (Mg, Ca, Ti) and iron abundances for field RR Lyrae (RRLs, 162 variables) by using high-resolution spectra. The current measurements were complemented with similar abundances available in the literature for 46 field RRLs brought to our metallicity scale. We ended up with a sample of old (t$\ge$ 10 Gyr), low-mass stellar tracers (208 RRLs: 169 fundamental, 38 first overtone, 1 mixed mode) covering three dex in iron abundance (-3.00$\le$[Fe/H]$\le$0.24). We found that field RRLs are $\sim$0.3 dex more $\alpha$-poor than typical Halo tracers in the metal-rich regime, ([Fe/H]$\ge$-1.2) while in the metal-poor regime ([Fe/H]$\le$-2.2) they seem to be on average $\sim$0.1 dex more $\alpha$-enhanced. This is the first time that the depletion in $\alpha$-elements for solar iron abundances is detected on the basis of a large, homogeneous and coeval sample of old stellar tracers. Interestingly, we also detected a close similarity in the [$\alpha$/Fe] trend between $\alpha$-poor, metal-rich RRLs and red giants (RGs) in the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy as well as between $\alpha$-enhanced, metal-poor RRLs and RGs in ultra faint dwarf galaxies. These results are supported by similar elemental abundances for 46 field Horizontal Branch (HB) stars. These stars share with RRLs the same evolutionary phase and the same progenitors. This evidence further supports the key role that old stellar tracers play in constraining the early chemical enrichment of the Halo and, in particular, in investigating the impact that dwarf galaxies have had in the mass assembly of the Galaxy.

This is the second paper of a series devoted to present an updated release of the BaSTI ( a Bag of Stellar Tracks and Isochrones) stellar model and isochrone library. Following the publication of the updated solar scaled library, here we present the library for a $\alpha-$enhanced heavy element distribution. These new alpha-enhanced models account for all improvements and updates in the reference solar metal distribution and physics inputs, as in the new solar scaled library. The models cover a mass range between 0.1 and $15~M_{\odot}$, 18 metallicities between [Fe/H]=-3.20 and +0.06 with [alpha/Fe]=+0.4 , and a helium to metal enrichment ratio Delta{Y}\Delta{Z}=1.31. For each metallicity, He-enhanced stellar models are also provided. The isochrones cover (typically) an age range between 20Myr and 14.5Gyr, including consistently the pre-main sequence phase. Asteroseismic properties of the theoretical models have also been calculated. Models and isochrones have been compared with results from independent calculations, with the previous BaSTI release, and also with selected observations, to test the accuracy/reliability of these new calculations. All stellar evolution tracks, asteroseismic properties and isochrones are made publicly available at http://basti-iac.oa-teramo.inaf.it, Comment: 24 pages, 18 figures, The Astrophysical Journal, in press

The separation between RR Lyrae (RRLs) and Type II Cepheid (T2Cs) variables based on their period is debated. Both types of variable stars are distance indicators and we aim to promote the use of T2Cs as distance indicators in synergy with RRLs. We adopted new and existing optical and Near-Infrared (NIR) photometry of \wcen~to investigate several diagnostics (colour-magnitude diagram, Bailey diagram, Fourier decomposition of the light curve, amplitude ratios) for their empirical separation. We found that the classical period threshold at 1 day is not universal and does not dictate the evolutionary stage: V92 has a period of 1.3 days but is likely to be still in its core Helium-burning phase, typical of RRLs. We also derived NIR Period-Luminosity relations and found a distance modulus of 13.65$\pm$0.07 (err.)$\pm$0.01 ($\sigma$) mag, in agreement with the recent literature. We also found that RRLs and T2Cs obey the same PL relations in the NIR. This equivalence gives the opportunity to adopt RRLs+T2Cs as an alternative to classical Cepheids to calibrate the extragalactic distance scale.

Ancient ($>$10 Gyr) globular clusters (GCs) show chemical abundance variations in the form of patterns among certain elements, e.g. N correlates with Na and anti-correlates with O. Recently, N abundance spreads have also been observed in massive star clusters that are significantly younger than old GCs, down to an age of $\sim$2 Gyr. However, so far N has been the only element found to vary in such young objects. We report here the presence of Na abundance variations in the intermediate age massive star clusters NGC 416 ($\sim$6.5 Gyr old) and Lindsay 1 ($\sim$7.5 Gyr old) in the Small Magellanic Cloud, by combining HST and ESO-VLT MUSE observations. Using HST photometry we were able to construct ''chromosome maps'' and separate sub-populations with different N content, in the red giant branch of each cluster. MUSE spectra of individual stars belonging to each population were combined, resulting in high signal-to-noise spectra representative of each population, which were compared to search for mean differences in Na. We find a mean abundance variation of $\Delta$[Na/Fe]$=0.18\pm0.04$ dex for NGC 416 and $\Delta$[Na/Fe]$=0.24\pm0.05$ dex for Lindsay 1. In both clusters we find that the population that is enhanced in N is also enhanced in Na, which is the same pattern to the one observed in ancient GCs. Furthermore, we detect a bimodal distribution of core-helium burning Red Clump (RC) giants in the UV colour magnitude diagram of NGC 416. A comparison of the stacked MUSE spectra of the two RCs shows the same mean Na abundance difference between the two populations. The results reported in this work are a crucial hint that star clusters of a large age range share the same origin: they are the same types of objects, but only separated in age., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS. 14 pages, 8 figures

We discuss the observed pulsation properties of Type II Cepheids (TIICs) in the Galaxy and Magellanic Clouds. The period (P) distributions, luminosity amplitudes and population ratios of the three different sub-groups (BL Herculis[BLH, P<5 days], W Virginis [WV, 520 days]) are quite similar in different stellar systems, suggesting a common evolutionary channel and a mild dependence on both metallicity and environment. We present a homogeneous theoretical framework based on Horizontal Branch (HB) evolutionary models, envisaging that TIICs are mainly old (t<10 Gyr), low-mass stars. The BLHs are predicted to be post early asymptotic giant branch (PEAGB) stars (double shell burning) on the verge of reaching their AGB track (first crossing of the instability strip), while WVs are a mix of PEAGB and post-AGB stars (hydrogen shell burning) moving from cool to hot (second crossing). Thus suggesting that they are a single group of variable stars. RVTs are predicted to be a mix of post-AGB stars along their second crossing (short-period tail) and thermally pulsing AGB stars (long-period tail) evolving towards their white dwarf cooling sequence. We also present several sets of synthetic HB models by assuming a bimodal mass distribution along the HB. Theory suggests, in agreement with observations, that TIIC pulsation properties marginally depend on metallicity. Predicted period distributions and population ratios for BLHs agree quite well with observations, while those for WVs and RVTs are almost a factor of two smaller and larger than observed, respectively. Moreover, the predicted period distributions for WVs peak at periods shorter than observed, while those for RVTs display a long period tail not supported by observations. We investigate several avenues to explain these differences, but more detailed calculations are required to address them., Comment: Accepted for publication by A&A, 2020

Nearly all of the well studied ancient globular clusters (GCs), in the Milky Way and in nearby galaxies, show star-to-star variations in specific elements (e.g., He, C, N, O, Na, Al), known as "multiple populations" (MPs). However, MPs are not restricted to ancient clusters, with massive clusters down to $\sim2$ Gyr showing signs of chemical variations. This suggests that young and old clusters share the same formation mechanism but most of the work to date on younger clusters has focused on N-variations. Initial studies even suggested that younger clusters may not host spreads in other elements beyond N (e.g., Na), calling into question whether these abundance variations share the same origin as in the older GCs. In this work, we combine HST photometry with VLT/MUSE spectroscopy of a large sample of RGB stars (338) in the Large Magellanic Cloud cluster NGC 1978, the youngest globular to date with reported MPs in the form of N-spreads. By combining the spectra of individual RGB stars into N-normal and N-enhanced samples, based on the "chromosome map" derived from HST, we search for mean abundance variations. Based on the NaD line, we find a Na-difference of $\Delta$[Na/Fe]$=0.07\pm0.01$ between the populations. While this difference is smaller than typically found in ancient GCs (which may suggest a correlation with age), this result further confirms that the MP phenomenon is the same, regardless of cluster age and host galaxy. As such, these young clusters offer some of the strictest tests for theories on the origin of MPs., Comment: 10 pages, 9 figures, 1 table. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

Fornax 4 is the most distinctive globular cluster in the Fornax dwarf spheroidal. Located close to the centre of the galaxy, more metal-rich and potentially younger than its four companions (namely, Fornax clusters number 1, 2, 3 and 5), it has been suggested to have experienced a different formation than the other clusters in the galaxy. Here we use HST/WFC3 photometry to characterize the stellar population content of this system and shed new light on its nature. By means of a detailed comparison of synthetic horizontal branch and red giant branch with the observed colour-magnitude diagrams, we find that this system likely hosts stellar sub-populations characterized by a significant iron spread up to $\Delta$[Fe/H]$\sim$0.4 dex and possibly by also some degree of He abundance variations $\Delta$Y$\sim0.03$. We argue that this purely observational evidence, combined with the other peculiarities characterizing this system, supports the possibility that Fornax 4 is the nuclear star cluster of the Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxy. A spectroscopic follow-up for a large number of resolved member stars is needed to confirm this interesting result and to study in detail the formation and early evolution of this system and more in general the process of galaxy nucleation., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS. 12 pages, 11 figures

The cosmological lithium problem, that is, the discrepancy between the lithium abundance predicted by the Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the one observed for the stars of the 'Spite plateau', is one of the long standing problems of modern astrophysics. Recent hints for a possible solution involve lithium burning induced by protostellar mass accretion on Spite plateau stars. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the effect of protostellar accretion on low metallicity low-mass stars with a focus on PMS lithium evolution. We computed the evolution from the protostar to the MS phase of accreting models with final masses of 0.7 and 0.8 M$_\odot$, and three metallicities Z=0.0001, Z=0.0010, and Z=0.0050. The effects of changing the main parameters affecting accreting models, that is the accretion energy (cold versus hot accretion), the initial seed mass $M_{seed}$ and radius $R_{seed}$, and the mass accretion rate $\dot{m}$, have been investigated in detail. As for the main stellar properties and the surface $^7 Li$ abundance, hot accretion models converge to standard non-accreting ones within 1 Myr, regardless of the actual value of $M_{seed}$, $R_{seed}$, and $\dot{m}$. Also, cold accretion models with a relatively large $M_{seed}$ ($\gtrsim 10~M_{jup}$) or $R_{seed}$ ($\gtrsim 1~R_\odot$) converge to standard non-accreting ones in less than about 10-20~Myr. A drastically different evolution occurs whenever a cold protostellar accretion process starts from small values of $M_{seed}$ and $R_{seed}$ ($M_{seed}\sim 1~M_{jup}$, $R_{seed} \lesssim 1~R_\odot$). These models almost entirely skip the standard Hayashi track evolution and deplete Li before the end of the accretion phase. The exact amount of depletion depends on the actual combination of the accretion parameters ($\dot{m}$, $M_{seed}$, and $R_{seed}$), achieving in some cases the complete exhaustion of Li in the whole star.

The spectroscopic and photometric signals of the star-to-star abundance variations found in globular clusters seem to be correlated with global parameters like the cluster's metallicity, mass and age. Understanding this behaviour could bring us closer to the origin of these intriguing abundance spreads. In this work we use deep HST photometry to look for evidence of abundance variations in the main sequence of a young massive cluster NGC 419 ($\sim10^5$ M$_{\odot}$, $\sim1.4$ Gyr). Unlike previous studies, here we focus on stars in the same mass range found in old globulars ($\sim0.75-1$ M$_{\odot}$), where light elements variations are detected. We find no evidence for N abundance variations among these stars in the $Un-B$ and $U-B$ CMD of NGC 419. This is at odds with the N-variations found in old globulars like 47 Tuc, NGC 6352 and NGC 6637 with similar metallicity to NGC 419. Although the signature of the abundance variations characteristic of old globulars appears to be significantly smaller or absent in this young cluster, we cannot conclude if this effect is mainly driven by its age or its mass., Comment: 9 pages, 8 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

The cosmological lithium problem, i.e. the discrepancy between the lithium abundance predicted by the Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and the one observed for the stars of the "Spite plateau", is one of the long standing problems of modern astrophysics. A possible astrophysical solution involves lithium burning due to protostellar mass accretion on Spite plateau stars. In present work, for the first time, we investigate with accurate evolutionary computations the impact of accretion on the lithium evolution in the metal-poor regime, that relevant for stars in the Spite plateau., Comment: 4 pages, 5 figures. Proceedings of the conference "Lithium in the Universe: to Be or not to Be", 18-22 November 2019, Rome (Italy)

Recent studies have revealed that the Multiple Populations (MPs) phenomenon does not occur only in ancient and massive Galactic globular clusters (GCs), but it is also observed in external galaxies, where GCs sample a wide age range with respect to the Milky Way. However, for a long time, it was unclear whether we were looking at the same phenomenon in different environments or not. The first evidence that the MPs phenomenon is the same regardless of cluster age and host galaxy came out recently when an intermediate-age cluster from the Small Magellanic Cloud, Lindsay 1, and a Galactic GC have been directly compared. By complementing those data with new images from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), we extend the comparison to two clusters of different ages: NGC 2121 ($\sim$2.5Gyr) and NGC 1783 ($\sim$1.5Gyr), from the Large Magellanic Cloud. We find a clear correlation between the RGB width in the pseudo-colour $C_{F275W,F343N,F438W}$ and the age of the cluster itself, with the older cluster having larger $\sigma(C_{F275W,F343N,F438W})^{RGB}$ and vice-versa. Unfortunately, the $\sigma$ values cannot be directly linked to the N-abundance variations within the clusters before properly taking account the effect of the first dredge-up. Such HST data also allow us to explore whether multiple star-formation episodes occurred within NGC 2121. The two populations are indistinguishable, with an age difference of only 6$\pm$12 Myr and an initial Helium spread of 0.02 or lower. This confirms our previous results, putting serious constraints on any model proposed to explain the origin of the chemical anomalies in GCs., Comment: 12 pages, 7 figures, 1 table. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

A number of scenarios for the formation of multiple populations in globular clusters (GCs) predict that second generation (2G) stars form in a compact and dense subsystem embedded in a more extended first-generation (1G) system. If these scenarios are accurate, a consequence of the denser 2G formation environment is that 2G binaries should be more significantly affected by stellar interactions and disrupted at a larger rate than 1G binaries. The fractions and properties of binary stars can thus provide a dynamical fingerprint of the formation epoch of multiple-population GCs and their subsequent dynamical evolution. We investigate the connection between binaries and multiple populations in five GCs, NGC 288, NGC 6121 (M 4), NGC 6352, NGC 6362, and NGC 6838 (M 71). To do this, we introduce a new method based on the comparison of Hubble Space Telescope observations of binaries in the F275W, F336W, F438W, F606W and F814W filters with a large number of simulated binaries. In the inner regions probed by our data we do not find large differences between the local 1G and the 2G binary incidences in four of the studied clusters, the only exception being M 4 where the 1G binary incidence is about three times larger than the 2G incidence. The results found are in general agreement with the results of simulations predicting significant differences in the global 1G and 2G incidences and in the local values in the clusters' outer regions but similar incidences in the inner regions. The significant difference found in M 4 is consistent with simulations with a larger fraction of wider binaries. Our analysis also provides the first evidence of mixed (1G-2G) binaries, a population predicted by numerical simulations to form in a cluster's inner regions as a result of stellar encounters during which one component of a binary is replaced by a star of a different population., Comment: 13 pages, 11 figures, published in MNRAS

Context. The large quantity of high-quality asteroseismic data that obtained from space-based photometric missions and the accuracy of the resulting frequencies motivate a careful consideration of the accuracy of computed oscillation frequencies of stellar models, when applied as diagnostics of the model properties. Aims. Based on models of red-giant stars that have been independently calculated using different stellar evolution codes, we investigate the extent to which the differences in the model calculation affect the model oscillation frequencies. Methods. For each of the models, which cover four different masses and different evolution stages on the red-giant branch, we computed full sets of low-degree oscillation frequencies using a single pulsation code and, from these frequencies, typical asteroseismic diagnostics. In addition, we carried out preliminary analyses to relate differences in the oscillation properties to the corresponding model differences. Results. In general, the differences in asteroseismic properties between the different models greatly exceed the observational precision of these properties, in particular for the nonradial modes whose mixed acoustic and gravity-wave character makes them sensitive to the structure of the deep stellar interior. In some cases, identifying these differences led to improvements in the final models presented here and in Paper I; here we illustrate particular examples of this. Conclusions. Further improvements in stellar modelling are required in order fully to utilise the observational accuracy to probe intrinsic limitations in the modelling. However, our analysis of the frequency differences and their relation to stellar internal properties provides a striking illustration of the potential of the mixed modes of red-giant stars for the diagnostics of stellar interiors., Comment: Astronomy and Astrophysics, in the press. Paper resubmitted to arXiv to correct author list in metadata

Stars in globular clusters (GCs) lose a non negligible amount of mass during their post-main sequence evolution. This material is then expected to build up a substantial intra-cluster medium (ICM) within the GC. However, the observed gas content in GCs is a couple of orders of magnitude below these expectations. Here we follow the evolution of this stellar wind material through hydrodynamical simulations to attempt to reconcile theoretical predictions with observations. We test different mechanisms proposed in the literature to clear out the gas such as ram-pressure stripping by the motion of the GC in the Galactic halo medium and ionisation by UV sources. We use the code ramses to run 3D hydrodynamical simulations to study for the first time the ICM evolution within discretised multi-mass GC models including stellar winds and full radiative transfer. We find that the inclusion of both ram-pressure and ionisation is mandatory to explain why only a very low amount of ionised gas is observed in the core of GCs. The same mechanisms operating in ancient GCs that clear the gas could also be efficient at younger ages, meaning that young GCs would not be able to retain gas and form multiple generations of stars as assumed in many models to explain "multiple populations". However, this rapid clearing of gas is consistent with observations of young massive clusters., Comment: 11 pages, 5 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

(Abridged). We introduce the Aarhus Red Giants Challenge, a series of detailed comparisons between widely used stellar evolution and oscillation codes aiming at establishing the minimum level of uncertainties in properties of red giants arising solely from numerical implementations. Using 9 state-of-the-art stellar evolution codes, we defined a set of input physics and physical constants for our calculations and calibrated the convective efficiency to a specific point on the main sequence. We produced evolutionary tracks and stellar structure models at fixed radius along the red-giant branch for masses of 1.0 M$_\odot$, 1.5 M$_\odot$, 2.0 M$_\odot$, and 2.5 M$_\odot$, and compared the predicted stellar properties. Once models have been calibrated on the main sequence we find a residual spread in the predicted effective temperatures across all codes of ~20 K at solar radius and ~30-40 K in the RGB regardless of the considered stellar mass. The predicted ages show variations of 2-5% (increasing with stellar mass) which we track down to differences in the numerical implementation of energy generation. The luminosity of the RGB-bump shows a spread of about 10% for the considered codes, which translates into magnitude differences of ~0.1 mag in the optical V-band. We also compare the predicted [C/N] abundance ratio and found a spread of 0.1 dex or more for all considered masses. Our comparisons show that differences at the level of a few percent still remain in evolutionary calculations of red giants branch stars despite the use of the same input physics. These are mostly due to differences in the energy generation routines and interpolation across opacities, and call for further investigations on these matters in the context of using properties of red giants as benchmarks for astrophysical studies., Comment: accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysics

We report a new star formation history for the Tucana dwarf spheroidal galaxy, obtained from a new look at a deep HST/ACS colour-magnitude diagram. We combined information from the main sequence turn-off and the horizontal branch to resolve the ancient star formation rates on a finer temporal scale than previously possible. We show that Tucana experienced three major phases of star formation, two very close together at ancient times and the last one ending between 6 and 8 Gyr ago. We show that the three discrete clumps of stars on the horizontal branch are linked to the distinct episodes of star formation in Tucana. The spatial distribution of the clumps reveals that each generation of stars presents a higher concentration than the previous one. The simultaneous modelling of the horizontal branch and the main sequence turn-off also allows us to measure the amount of mass lost by red giant branch stars in Tucana with unprecedented precision, confirming dwarf spheroidals to be excellent laboratories to study the advanced evolution of low-mass stars., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A. 10 pages, 11 figures

The discovery of star-to-star abundance variations (a.k.a. multiple populations - MPs) within globular clusters (GCs), which are generally not found in the field or in lower mass open clusters, has led to a search for the unique property of GCs that allow them to host this phenomenon. Recent studies have shown that MPs are not limited to the ancient GCs but are also found in massive clusters with ages down to (at least) 2 Gyr. This finding is important for understanding the physics of the MP phenomenon, as these young clusters can provide much stronger constraints (e.g. on potential age spreads within the clusters) than older ones. However, a direct comparison between ancient GCs and intermediate clusters has not yet been possible due to the different filters adopted in their studies. Here we present new HST UV photometry of the 7.5 Gyr, massive SMC cluster, Lindsay 1, in order to compare its pseudo colour-colour diagram to that of Galactic GCs. We find that they are almost identical and conclude that the MPs phenomenon is the same, regardless of cluster age and host galaxy., Comment: 5 pages, 4 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS Letters

The discovery both through spectroscopy and photometry of multiple stellar populations in Galactic globular clusters, and in Magellanic Clouds' massive intermediate-age and old clusters, has led to a major change in our views about the formation of these objects. To date, none of the proposed scenarios is able to explain quantitatively all chemical patterns observed in individual clusters, and an extension of the study of multiple populations to resolved extragalactic massive clusters beyond the Magellanic Clouds would be welcome, for it would enable to investigate and characterize the presence of multiple populations in different environments and age ranges. To this purpose, the James Webb Space Telescope can potentially play a major role. On the one hand, the JWST promises direct observations of proto-globular cluster candidates at high redshift; on the other hand, it can potentially push to larger distances the sample of resolved clusters with detected multiple populations. In this paper we have addressed this second goal. Using theoretical stellar spectra and stellar evolution models, we have investigated the effect of multiple population chemical patterns on synthetic magnitudes in the JWST infrared NIRCam filters. We have identified the colours (F150W-F460M), (F115W-F460M) and pseudocolours C_{F150W,F460M,F115W}=(F150W-F460M)-(F460M-F115W), C_{F150W,F277W,F115W}=(F150W-F277W)-(F277W-F115W), as diagnostics able to reveal the presence of multiple populations along the red giant branches of old and intermediate age clusters. Using the available on-line simulator for the NIRCam detector, we have estimated that multiple populations can be potentially detected --depending on the exposure times, exact filter combination used, plus the extent of the abundance variations and the cluster [Fe/H]--out to a distance of about 5Mpc (approximately the distance to the M83 group)., Comment: 6 pages, 7 figures, Astronomy and Astrophysics "in press"

We report on the white dwarf cooling sequence of the old globular cluster NGC 6752, which is chemically complex and hosts a blue horizontal branch. This is one of the last globular cluster white dwarf (WD) cooling sequences accessible to imaging by the Hubble Space Telescope. Our photometry and completeness tests show that we have reached the peak of the luminosity function of the WD cooling sequence, at a magnitude m_F606W=29.4+/-0.1, which is consistent with a formal age of ~14Gyr. This age is also consistent with the age from fits to the main-sequence turnoff (13-14Gyr), reinforcing our conclusion that we observe the expected accumulation of white dwarfs along the cooling sequence., Comment: 10 pages, 1 table, 5 figures (3 in low resolution). Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2019, July 12. Associated RGB-cube-WCS-fits file at https://web.oapd.inaf.it/bedin/files/PAPERs_eMATERIALs/NGC6752_III/NGC6752_RGB_WCS.fits.bz2

In our HST photometric survey, we have been searching for multiple stellar populations (MPs) in Magellanic Clouds (MCs) massive star clusters which span a significant range of ages ($\sim 1.5-11$ Gyr). In the previous papers of the series, we have shown that the age of the cluster represents one of the key factors in shaping the origin of the chemical anomalies. Here we present the analysis of four additional clusters in the MCs, namely Lindsay 38, Lindsay 113, NGC 2121 and NGC 2155, for which we recently obtained new UV HST observations. These clusters are more massive than $\sim 10^4M_{\odot}$ and have ages between $\sim 2.5-6$ Gyr, i.e. located in a previously unexplored region of the cluster age/mass diagram. We found chemical anomalies, in the form of N spreads, in three out of four clusters in the sample, namely in NGC 2121, NGC 2155 and Lindsay 113. By combining data from our survey and HST photometry for 3 additional clusters in the Milky Way (namely 47 Tuc, M15 and NGC 2419), we show that the extent of the MPs in the form of N spread is a strong function of age, with older clusters having larger N spreads with respect to the younger ones. Hence, we confirm that cluster age plays a significant role in the onset of MPs., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS. 12 pages, 9 figures

We used high-resolution optical HST/WFC3 and multi-conjugate adaptive optics assisted GEMINI GeMS/GSAOI observations in the near-infrared to investigate the physical properties of the globular cluster NGC 6569 in the Galactic bulge. We have obtained the deepest purely NIR color-magnitude diagram published so far for this cluster using ground-based observations, reaching $K_{s}$ $\approx$ 21.0 mag (two magnitudes below the main-sequence turn-off point). By combining the two datasets secured at two different epochs, we determined relative proper motions for a large sample of individual stars in the center of NGC 6569, allowing a robust selection of cluster member stars. Our proper motion analysis solidly demonstrates that, despite its relatively high metal content, NGC 6569 hosts some blue horizontal branch stars. A differential reddening map has been derived in the direction of the system, revealing a maximum color excess variation of about $\delta E(B-V)$ $\sim$ 0.12 mag in the available field of view. The absolute age of NGC 6569 has been determined for the first time. In agreement with the other few bulge globular clusters with available age estimates, NGC 6569 turns out to be old, with an age of about 12.8 Gyr, and a typical uncertainty of 0.8-1.0 Gyr., Comment: 25 pages, 16 Figures, 1 Table. Accepted for publication in ApJ

We report the spectroscopic discovery of abundance spreads (i.e. multiple populations) in the ~2 Gyr old cluster in the LMC, Hodge 6. We use low resolution VLT FORS2 spectra of 15 member stars in the cluster to measure their CN and CH band strengths at ~3883 and 4300 A, respectively, as well as [C/Fe] and [N/Fe] abundances. We find a sub-population of 2 stars that are enriched in nitrogen, and we conclude that this sub-population is evidence of multiple populations in Hodge 6. This is the second ~2 Gyr old cluster (the first being NGC 1978 in the LMC) to show multiple populations and the first spectroscopic detection of MPs in a cluster of this age. This result is interesting as it hints at a possible relationship between the disappearance of extended main sequence turn-offs in clusters younger than ~2 Gyr and the onset of multiple populations at ~2 Gyr, which should be explored further., Comment: 10 pages, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Intermediate-age star clusters in the Magellanic Clouds harbour signatures of the multiple stellar populations long thought to be restricted to old globular clusters. We compare synthetic horizontal branch models with Hubble Space Telescope photometry of clusters in the Magellanic Clouds, with age between ~2 and ~10 Gyr, namely NGC 121, Lindsay 1, NGC 339, NGC 416, Lindsay 38, Lindsay 113, Hodge 6 and NGC 1978. We find a clear signature of initial helium abundance spreads (delta(Y)) in four out of these eight clusters (NGC 121, Lindsay 1, NGC 339, NGC 416) and we quantify the value of delta(Y). For two clusters (Lindsay 38, Lindsay 113) we can only determine an upper limit for delta(Y), whilst for the two youngest clusters in our sample (Hodge 6 and NGC 1978) no conclusion about the existence of an initial He spread can be reached. Our delta(Y) estimates are consistent with the correlation between maximum He abundance spread and mass of the host cluster found in Galactic globular clusters. This result strengthens the emerging view that the formation of multiple stellar populations is a standard process in massive star clusters, not limited to a high redshift environment., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS