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Key words Livestock markets, technical and institutional constraints, innovation systems, veterinary services; smallholder farmers; structural adjustment, scaling out, co-learning, supplementary feeding, herd growth, food security, positive deviants, commercialization, Ghana. Smallholder livestock production systems in sub-Saharan Africa and other developing countries are very important because a large share of the rural poor keep livestock, livestock can contribute to improved soil fertility and household food security, and there is rapid growth in demand and market for livestock products. As elsewhere, almost 80% of smallholder farmers in Northern Ghana keep livestock, especially small ruminants (i.e. sheep and goats). The high demand for livestock products at the national level remains unexploited by the farmers. This thesis sought to examine 1) the salient technical and institutional constraints that hinder innovation with respect to improved production and market participation of smallholder small ruminant farmers in Lawra and Nadowli districts in Northern Ghana, and 2) how previous interventions and farmers themselves sought to address the constraints. The thesis proceeded from a broad diagnosis of the technical and institutional constraints to market participation. Then, detailed empirical studies were conducted on the emergent issues. Three main constraints were prioritized by farmers i.e. water shortage during dry season, high mortality and theft of livestock. The corresponding institutional limitations include weak structure of veterinary services delivery, and weak traditional and formal justice delivery structures. As a result of the constraints, a majority of farmers keep livestock to support crop production and consequently invest minimally in animal husbandry. Few farmers changed from minimal to moderate investment as a result of accumulated experiences and recorded significant herd growth, but then, did not enlarge the volume of their market share. T

This paper assesses why participation in markets for small ruminants is relatively low in northern Ghana by analysing the technical and institutional constraints to innovation in smallholder small ruminant production and marketing in Lawra and Nadowli Districts. The results show that the limitations experienced by smallholders, i.e., water shortages during the dry season, high mortality and theft of livestock, persist because of institutional constraints. These include structural limitations related to availability of arable lands, weak support systems for animal production and health services delivery, community values that are skewed towards crop production more than animal husbandry, ineffective traditional and formal structures for justice delivery, and gaps in the interaction between communities and district and national level organizations such as the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, district assemblies, rural banks, and non-governmental organizations as well as traders and butchers. Confronted with such constraints, the strategies that most smallholders have adopted to be resilient entail diversified sources of livelihood, low input use in small ruminant production, and maintaining the herd as a capital stock and insurance. Only a few smallholders (i.e., ‘positive deviants’) engage in market or demand-driven production or exhibit successful strategies in small ruminant husbandry. It is argued in this paper that for the majority of smallholders, market production, which requires high levels of external inputs or intensification of resource use, is not a viable option. The main implications of the study are (1) that other institutional constraints than market access constraints should be addressed, (2) that commercial livestock production should not be idealized as the best or only option (as is being done in many contemporary interventions that aim at incorporating smallholders into commodity value chains), and (3) that different types of small ruminant syste

The article introduces the diagnostic studies reported in this special issue and prepares the reader for understanding their full portent, not only as stand-alone articles but also as an expression of a research programme with a common purpose and scientific objective. As such, the article introduces the focus of the CoS–SIS programme on the nexus between farmer practices and institutional context, and primes the reader on the special challenges posed by diagnosis of this nexus. The diagnostic studies scoped the landscape and the regime but mainly as these might impact the niche. What is reported is ‘the view from the niche’. The article explains the structure of the research programme and the role of the PhD researchers in it. It further describes a number of methodological issues common to all.

Ghana produces about 2,000,000 metric tons of oil palm fruits annually, and small-scale processors contribute about 60% of crude palm oil production. The country is not self-sufficient in the fats and oils needed for industrial use and home consumption. A large percentage of the palm oil produced by small-scale processors cannot be utilized by the larger scale industries in Ghana or abroad because of its poor quality. There is an urgent need to explore the causes and to identify ways to address the situation. We carried out a diagnostic study in the Kwaebibirem District using key informant interviews, focus group discussions and surveys based on a semi-structured questionnaire to assess the processing practices of small-scale oil palm fruit processors, and to analyse the rationale behind these practices and their effects on the quality of palm oil produced. The processing practices identified included storage of loosened fruits for long periods before boiling, disposal of effluent into drains, use of spent tyres for boiling fruits and no clarification of the oil. About 54% of the processors store oil palm fruits for 1–3 weeks before processing, possibly allowing some fermentation, to increase extractability and reduce labour costs. This practice may reduce the quality of palm oil by increasing the levels of free fatty acids. The effects of the storage period on the quality and quantity of palm oil, the seasonal oil content of oil palm fruits, and the types of linkages and interactions amongst actors in the oil palm industry were identified together with stakeholders as issues for further research. Innovation in small-scale oil palm fruit processing is revealed as a multi-stakeholder, multiple-scale, and interdisciplinary process.

This paper investigates the institutional factors that constrain farmers’ incentives to enhance the quality of cocoa beans in Ghana. Data were collected at three levels of aggregation in the cocoa bean value chain: village, district, and national level. Multi-stage cluster sampling was employed to sample 120 farmers and 12 purchasing agents of licensed buying companies from 12 villages in Assin Foso, Suhum, Dormaa and Wasa Akropong cocoa districts. Convenience sampling was used to sample key informants from relevant organizations and service providers at district and national levels. The study revealed that, even though quality is important to all categories of actors in the cocoa sector, interactions among them are hampered by problems of information asymmetry that result especially in farmers evading recommended practices. While cocoa sector policies ensure the export of premium quality cocoa, policies have not sufficiently alleviated the information problem especially in the relation between farmers and cocoa purchasing agents. It explains why Ghanaian farms have not been able to reach their full potential to produce more than 1,000,000 metric tons of premium quality cocoa annually. Amongst other options, self-selection policies, such as quality testing with price premiums, are recommended for testing as potential incentive mechanisms that address information asymmetry.

We carried out a study using key informant interviews, focus group discussions and individual interviews to explore opportunities to enhance innovation in the oil palm sector in Ghana. Current technical innovations at the farm level are insufficient to promote sustainable oil palm production and to alleviate poverty because of overriding institutional constraints at the larger-than-farm level. Oil palm was selected for the study for three main reasons: (1) It is considered a national priority crop because of its potential for reducing poverty, (2) It has a wide geographical coverage and (3) It is considered as both food and cash crop. Oil palm has evolved in the past 40 years from a public-sector to a private-sector crop. The study identified the following main actors in oil palm production: small private farms that produce about 80% of the crop; large-scale industrial estates with their network of smallholder and out-grower farmers who produce to supply their large-scale mechanized processing mills; small-scale semi-mechanized processing mills, medium-scale mechanized mills and secondary processors. Opportunities that will make it rational for farmers to invest in increased production and improved sustainability include: (1) creating institutional conditions that will enable small-scale processors to be integrated into the value chain; (2) organising farmers to be able to negotiate for better deals for themselves; (3) improve system of distribution of improved planting material in regions where accessibility to seedlings of the high-yielding tenera hybrid variety is difficult; and (4) developing new tenancy rules and arrangements that improve the income of tenant farmers and encourage them to invest in increased productivity.

Cowpea-maize rotations form an important component of the farming systems of smallholder farmers in the forest/savannah transitional agro-ecological zone of Ghana. We evaluated five cowpea varieties for grain yield, N-2-fixation, biomass production, and contribution to productivity of subsequent maize grown in rotation. We further analyzed the interrelationship between these technical dimensions and the social acceptability of these cowpea varieties for farmers. Cowpea grain yield ranged between 1.1 and 1.4 t ha(-1) with no significant yield differences among the different varieties. Using the N-15 natural abundance technique, the average proportion of N-2 fixed ranged between 61% for Ayiyi and 77% for Legon prolific. This resulted in average amounts of N-2 fixed in above-ground biomass ranging between 32 and 67 kg N ha(-1), respectively. Variation in estimates due to differences in delta N-15 among reference plants were larger than differences between cowpea varieties. The amount of soil-derived N ranged from 15 to 20 kg N ha(-1). The above-ground net N contribution of the cowpea varieties to the soil (after adjusting for N export in grains) was highest for Legon Prolific (31 kg N ha(-1)) due to high N-2-fixation and high leaf biomass production. Maize grain yield after cowpea without application of mineral N fertilizer ranged between 0.4 t ha(-1) with maize after maize to 1.5 t ha(-1) with Legon Prolific. The N fertilizer equivalence values for the cowpea varieties ranged between 18 and 60 kg N ha(-1). IT810D-1010 was ranked by the farmers as the most preferred cowpea variety due to its white seed type, short-duration, ease of harvesting and good market value. Despite the high leaf biomass production and high amount of N-2 fixed by Legon Prolific, it was generally the least preferred variety due to lower market price, late maturity, least potential cash income (due to the red mottled seed type) and difficulty in harvesting. Although farmers recognized the contribu

The contribution of agricultural research to improving resource-poor farmers' livelihoods has remained sub-optimal. Explanations for this lack of impact are diverse and many approaches were proposed over time to address them, amongst others: transfer of technology to teach farmers the 'right technologies'; designing technological packages (high yielding varieties, fertilisers and pesticides), and facilitating access to input and credit; adapting to farmers' conditions through farming systems research and on-farm research; and participation of farmers in planning and evaluation. All these approaches did however not improve the situation inWest Africaas drastically as was hoped for. In the late 1990's, therefore, it was recognised that researchers alone cannot grasp the complexity and dynamics of the local situation and the need arose for researchers to join forces with farmers to explore and design viable innovations. The reason for the failure of agricultural research was sought in the methodology used. Alongside numerous approaches such as the facilitation of learning, Participatory Technology Development andFarmerFieldSchoolsemerged.The Convergence of Sciences (CoS) Programme squarely fits within this movement and builds on the achievements of these approaches.These approaches as well as the background of this study are extensively discussed in chapters 1 and 2 of this dissertation.We conducted ametaresearch on the pathway(s) of science thatCoSfollowed. Eight PhD researchers fromGhanaandBeninconducted in their respective countries research on integrated pest management, weed management, soil fertility and crop diversity with resource-poor farmers aimed at improving the livelihoods of the farmers. The PhD researchers used a social and biological science perspective and were supervised by supervisors from both the social and biological disciplines, both from West Africa and theNetherlands. The comparison of the field experiences formed the basis of ourmetaresearch o

The original entry point for this study was how to optimize long-term rotation strategies for addressing the problem of soil fertility decline inWenchi,Ghana. However, as the study progressed over time, it was realized that what we initially interpreted as soil fertility management strategies were closely intertwined with wider issues such as cropping systems, livelihood aspirations and land tenure relations. Exploration of farmers' soil fertility management practices revealed a link between tenure insecurity among migrant farmers especially, and limited attention for regeneration of soil fertility. The native farmers who own land tend to use rotations involving long-duration crops such as cassava and pigeonpea to improve their soils. In contrast, migrants who depend mostly on short-term rental or sharecropping arrangements, rely more on rotations with short- duration crops such as cowpea and groundnut to improve soil fertility. A study to examine diversity among farm households and their relevance and implications for orienting action research aimed at combating soil fertility decline revealed that historical, ethnic and gender dimensions of diversity provide additional insights in livelihood patterns and soil fertility management which are relevant for fine-tuning technical and social action research agendas. Relevant differences between farm households result from the interplay between structural conditions and the strategies of active agents. Five cowpea varieties were evaluated for their grain yield, Nsub>2 -fixation and their contribution to the productivity of subsequent maize crop grown in rotation. On both farmer and researcher-managed fields, there were no significant differences in grain yield among the different varieties. Using the 15 N natural abundance technique, the proportion of N 2 fixed by the different cowpea varieties ranged between 61 and 77%. On both farmer and researcher-managed fields, maize grain yield after cowpea without application of mi

Ghana is a major producer of cocoa in the world and relies heavily on the crop for foreign exchange revenue. However, production levels declined from the mid 1960s reaching the lowest level in 1983. The decline in production was a result of decreasing areas under cultivation, and low yields. Pests and diseases are inadequately controlled, and the use of synthetic pesticides , applied on calendar basis, is recommended. However, due to the high cost of pesticides and low producer prices, farmers are not motivated to use the synthetic pesticides. Moreover, the sole reliance on synthetic pesticides may affect human health through inappropriate handling, causes environmental problems, and leads to resurgence of pests as natural enemies are destroyed.The objectives of this thesis were to explore: (i) more sustainable pest and disease management strategies; (ii) research and extension approaches which can facilitate the development of innovations that can be used widely by farmers; and (iii) how such approaches could be institutionalised. Theoretical inspiration and concepts orienting the thesis were derived from general systems theory, soft systems thinking, innovation theory,integrated pest management (IPM) concepts and theories about learning and social capital.The research was carried out in an action research mode, and as part of it, both quantitative and qualitative methods were used in collecting and analysing data. Quantitative data were collected from experimental plots to evaluate the effectiveness of IPM practices in improving yield. They were also collected through a survey that was geared at gathering information about the demographic structure of the study area, and to gain insight in the perceptions of various actors about the existing research and extension system. Qualitative data were collected through participant observation, informal interviews and open-ended questionnaires.Based on the idea that current research and extension messages might insufficien

The Convergence of Sciences programme (CoS) addresses the sub-optimal impact of science on the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers in West Africa, particularly in Benin and Ghana where it operates. CoS aims to develop insights into the pathways through which investment in science and technology can improve rural lives. To this end, CoS features participatory experimental and action research by eight PhD students, who each develop technologies and institutional arrangements with groups of farmers. The ninth PhD student carries out comparative `research on agricultural research¿. The current article deals with a higher aggregation level than the individual project: the management of the programme as a whole. How did CoS try to zero in on the small windows of opportunity West African farmers face? How did it manage the ensuing issues of trans-disciplinarity, and of interaction among students, (social and natural science) supervisors, and other key stakeholders? How does it face up to the issues that arise with respect to scaling up? One of the most interesting aspects of CoS is that it not only deals with technical innovation within the constraining institutional and policy framework conditions, but also experiments with incipient ideas about how to stretch them.

A diagnostic study was conducted to identify the major constraints on organic cocoa production at Brong-Densuso and surrounding communities in the Suhum-Kraboa-Coaltar District, Eastern Region, Ghana. The study followed a technographic study that highlighted cocoa as a public crop requiring broad techno-social innovations. In the technographic study, problems identified included low yields, persistent pest management constraints and a low adoption rate of technologies developed by the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. The diagnostic study adopted a Participatory Learning and Action Research approach to set up and implement fieldwork with relevant stakeholders leading to problem identification, prioritization, and collective design of an action plan (research agenda). Cocoa farmers within the study area are conscious of the environmental problems associated with the use of inorganic pesticides and the high cost of using them. Hence, they produce cocoa without applying any pesticides. Quite recently, however, their association with an organic marketing company led to a search for non-chemical pest and disease control measures and for ways to certify their cocoa beans as organic. A misconception as to what species of cocoa pests constitute ‘capsids’ was settled between farmers and scientists using a cage experiment on capsid damage. The farmers became convinced that the Cocoa Mosquito (Helopeltis spp.) (Hemiptera: Miridae), which they had previously considered an important pest, was a capsid species that caused little or no damage to the beans inside the pods. After this clarification, damage caused by the Brown Capsid (Sahlbergella singularis; Hemiptera: Miridae) and the Black Capsid (Distantiella theobroma; Hemiptera: Miridae) emerged as the most serious production constraint, followed by Black Pod disease (caused by Phytophtora palmivora). The malfunctioning of tenure agreements and the mistrust between landlords, who are mainly absentee farmers, and their caretake

In the past, farmers in the forest-savannah transitional agro-ecological zone of Ghana relied on the bush fallow system for maintaining the productivity of their farmland. However, in recent years population growth-induced pressure on land has increased and farmers have developed various other strategies for improving the productivity of their farmlands. Such strategies have been identified in the context of an interdisciplinary action research project and include rotations with cassava (Manihot esculents), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Using a social science model for understanding technical farming practices, this article explains the differential adoption of these locally developed soil fertility management strategies. It transpires that native and migrant communities are captured in a social dilemma situation, which has negative consequences for soil fertility in that promising innovations are not utilized optimally. Based on this research experience, this article concludes with a discussion of the implications for co-operation between natural and social scientists in the context of interactive action research. It is argued, amongst other things, that the essence of such co-operation lies in the critical questioning and influencing of each other's key assumptions and disciplinary research agendas.

Eight researchers from Ghana and Benin, with different backgrounds but all co-operating within the Convergence of Sciences project, conducted diagnostic studies as a first step of their research aimed at developing technologies together with resource-poor farmers. The purpose of including diagnostic studies was to increase the likelihood that the resulting technologies would be grounded in the needs and opportunities of these farmers. To better understand the potential of diagnostic studies for improving the contribution of agricultural research to farmers’ livelihoods, a comparative study was conducted of the diagnostic studies carried out by the eight researchers. This research on agricultural research was participatory in that its results were arrived at in consultation with the eight researchers. The comparison revealed that diagnostic studies identified and established forums of stakeholders, especially of farmers, who were to play key roles in the co-construction of knowledge during the field experimental phase that followed the diagnostic studies. The diagnostic studies gave farmers a say in the design and conduct of the experimental phase which allowed them to influence the research process in the direction of developing and testing technologies that work in their circumstances and that satisfy their needs and priorities. In addition, the diagnostic studies have led to transparent choices with respect to the selection of sites, farmers and experiments. Furthermore, the conditions for negotiation were created. Finally, the diagnostic studies played a crucial role in making the partners within the Convergence of Sciences project aware of the importance of contextual framework conditions in determining the relevance of the project.

Small-scale credit provided under appropriate conditions has long been recognized as an engine of rural development, and informal institutions have played an important role in providing this. However, their capacity is limited, but formal institutions with much greater financial capacity rarely reach rural people because of the risks and transaction costs. Describing how in Ghana the two types of institution have worked together, to their mutual advantage and to that of small-scale rural traders and borrowers, this paper draws out the preconditions that must be in place for linkages of this kind to prosper elsewhere.