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Pollinator decline is one of the gravest challenges facing the world today, and the overuse of pesticides may be among its causes. Here, we studied whether glyphosate, the world’s most widely used pesticide, affects the bumblebee gut microbiota. We exposed the bumblebee diet to glyphosate and a glyphosate-based herbicide and quantified the microbiota community shifts using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Furthermore, we estimated the potential sensitivity of bee gut microbes to glyphosate based on previously reported presence of target enzyme. Glyphosate increased, whereas the glyphosate-based herbicide decreased gut microbiota diversity, indicating that negative effects are attributable to co-formulants. Both glyphosate and the glyphosate-based herbicide treatments significantly decreased the relative abundance of potentially glyphosate-sensitive bacterial species Snodgrasella alvi. However, the relative abundance of potentially glyphosate-sensitive Candidatus Schmidhempelia genera increased in bumblebees treated with glyphosate. Overall, 50% of the bacterial genera detected in the bee gut microbiota were classified as potentially resistant to glyphosate, while 36% were classified as sensitive. Healthy core microbiota have been shown to protect bees from parasite infections, change metabolism, and decrease mortality. Thus, the heavy use of glyphosate-based herbicides may have implications on bees and ecosystems.

Pollinator decline is a grave challenge worldwide. One of the main culprits for this decline is the widespread use of, and pollinators’ chronic exposure to, agrochemicals. Here, we examined the effect of a field-realistic dose of the world’s most commonly used pesticide, glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH), on bumblebee cognition. We experimentally tested bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) color and scent discrimination using acute GBH exposure, approximating a field-realistic dose from a day’s foraging in a patch recently sprayed with GBH. In a 10-color discrimination experiment with five learning bouts, GBH treated bumblebees’ learning rate fell to zero by third learning bout, whereas the control bees increased their performance in the last two bouts. In the memory test, the GBH treated bumblebees performed to near chance level, indicating that they had lost everything they had learned during the learning bouts, while the control bees were performing close to the level in their last learning bout. However, GBH did not affect bees’ learning in a 2-color or 10-odor discrimination experiment, which suggests that the impact is limited to fine color learning and does not necessarily generalize to less specific tasks or other modalities. These results indicate that the widely used pesticide damages bumblebees’ fine-color discrimination, which is essential to the pollinator’s individual success and to colony fitness in complex foraging environments. Hence, our study suggests that acute sublethal exposure to GBH poses a greater threat to pollination-based ecosystem services than previously thought, and that tests for learning and memory should be integrated into pesticide risk assessment.

Plant roots are abundantly colonized by dark septate endophytic (DSE) fungi in virtually all ecosystems. DSE fungi are functionally heterogeneous and their relationships with plants range from antagonistic to mutualistic. Here, we consider the role of by-product benefits in DSE and other root–fungal symbioses. We compared host investments against symbiont-derived benefits for the host plant and categorized these benefits as by-products or benefits requiring reciprocal investment from the host. By-product benefits may provide the variability required for the evolution of invested mutualisms between the host and symbiont. We suggest that DSE could be considered as ‘a by-product mutualist transitional phase’ in the evolution of cooperative mycorrhizal symbionts from saprotrophic fungi.

Controversial glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) are the most frequently used herbicides globally. GBH residues in the wild, in animal and human food may expose non-target organisms to health risks, yet the developmental and cumulative effects of GBHs on physiology and reproduction remain poorly understood. We present the first long-term study on the effects of subtoxic GBH exposure (160 mg/kg) on multiple key physiological biomarkers (cellular oxidative status and neurotransmitters), gut microbiome, reproductive hormones, and reproduction in an avian model. We experimentally exposed in Japanese quail females and males (Coturnix japonica) to GBHs and respective controls from the age of 10 days–52 weeks. GBH exposure decreased hepatic activity of an intracellular antioxidant enzyme (catalase), independent of sex, but did not influence other intracellular oxidative stress biomarkers or neurotransmitter enzyme (acetylcholinesterase). GBH exposure altered overall gut microbiome composition, especially at a younger age and in females, and suppressed potentially beneficial microbes at an early age. Many of the microbial groups increased in frequency from 12 to 28 weeks under GBH exposure. GBH exposure decreased male testosterone levels both at sexual maturity and at 52 weeks of exposure, but did not clearly influence reproduction in either sex (maturation, testis size or egg production). Future studies are needed to characterize the effects on reproductive physiology in more detail. Our results suggest that cumulative GBH exposure may influence health and reproduction-related traits, which is important in predicting their effects on wild populations and global poultry industry.

Most plants form symbiotic associations with various fungi in natural ecosystems. Traditionally, many of these associations are viewed as mutually beneficial, but recent studies show that symbiotic interactions can be complex and labile. I studied the variability of interactions between grasses and fungi, using root-associated fungi and foliar endophytes in grasses as study systems. First, I studied experimentally how root-associated fungi colonize their host grasses in different natural and artificial conditions. I then investigated experimentally how foliar endophytes affect their host grasses, and whether the endophyte contributes to the host’s adaptation to local and/or foreign habitats. Finally, I reviewed the current use of foliar endophytes in agriculture, with a particular focus on Europe, and critically considered their potential for practices beyond agriculture. I found root fungi to be common, but different types of root fungi had contrasting colonization patterns in natural environments. However, I found that grasses lose almost all of their root fungi in controlled and more favourable conditions, indicating that the associations are fairly loose and conditional to environmental context. My results also showed that foliar endophytes affected the host’s performance in varying ways, depending on plant origin and experimental country, indicating that the associations were context dependent and could represent conditional mutualism. I also found that endophytes contribute to plant adaptation only weakly, but that the grasses were clearly locally adapted to their sites of origin, especially in regard to reproduction. However, the grasses of subalpine origin performed well vegetatively also in Northern Finland, suggesting that they may have high adaptive potential under changing climates. The literary review showed that foliar endophytes are successfully used in agriculture, e.g. in the USA and New Zealand, and that they possess the potential for seve, Tiivistelmä Luonnollisissa ekosysteemeissä melkein kaikilla kasveilla on symbionttisia sienikumppaneita. Perinteisesti monien näiden vuorovaikutusten on oletettu olevan molemmille hyödyllisiä, mutta viimeaikaiset tutkimukset osoittavat symbionttisten yhteyksien olevan vaihtelevia. Väitöskirjassani tutkin tätä heinien ja sienien välisten yhteyksien vaihtelevuutta, käyttäen heinissä esiintyviä juurisieniä ja lehtiendofyyttejä tutkimuskohteinani. Ensiksi tutkin kokeellisesti, kuinka juurisienet kolonisoivat heiniä erilaisissa luonnon- ja kasvihuoneolosuhteissa. Seuraavaksi tutkin kokeellisesti, kuinka lehtiendofyytit vaikuttivat heinien menestymiseen ja edesauttoivatko endofyytit heinien sopeutumista paikallisiin ja/tai vieraisiin elinympäristöihin. Viimeiseksi selvitin kirjallisuuskatsauksen avulla, kuinka lehtiendofyyttejä hyödynnetään maataloudessa ja arvioin endofyyttien potentiaalista käyttöarvoa maatalouden ulkopuolella, erityisesti keskittyen niiden hyödyntämiseen Euroopassa. Tutkimukseni osoitti, että heinien juurisienet ovat yleisiä, mutta niiden keskinäiset runsaussuhteet vaihtelivat luonnollisissa ympäristöissä. Kasvihuoneolosuhteissa heinät kuitenkin menettivät juurisienensä, viitaten siihen, että kyseinen yhteys on melko löyhä ja riippuvainen ympäristöstä. Tutkimukseni osoitti myös, että lehtiendofyytit vaikuttivat heinien menestykseen vaihtelevasti riippuen heinien alkuperästä sekä koemaasta, viitaten siihen, että nämä yhteydet ovat niin ikään olosuhteista riippuvaisia. Endofyytti vaikutti vain heikosti heinien sopeutumiseen, mutta heinät olivat selkeästi paikallisesti sopeutuneita niiden alkuperäisiin elinympäristöihin, erityisesti heinien lisääntymisen suhteen. Alppien heinät kuitenkin menestyivät vegetatiivisesti myös Pohjois-Lapissa, mikä viittaa siihen, että näillä heinillä saattaa olla korkea sopeutumispotentiaali muuttuvissa olosuhteissa. Kirjallisuuskatsaukseni osoitti, että lehtiendofyyttejä käytetään menestyksekkäästi mm. USA:n ja Uudessa-Seelan

Global warming has been commonly accepted to facilitate species’ range shifts across latitudes. Cross-latitudinal transplantations support this; many tree species can well adapt to new geographical areas. However, these studies fail to capture species’ adaptations to new light environment because the experiments were not designed to explicitly separate species’ responses to light and temperature. Here we tested reaction norms of tree seedlings in reciprocal transplantations 1,000 km apart from each other at two latitudes (60°N and 69°N). In contrast to past studies, we exposed our experimental plants to same temperature in both sites (temperature of 60°N growing site is recorded to adjust temperature of 69°N site in real time via Internet connection) while light environment (photoperiod, light quality) remained ambient. Shoot elongation and autumn coloration were studied in seedlings of two deciduous trees (Betula pendula and Sorbus aucuparia), which were expected to respond differently to day length. Sorbus as a member of Rosaceae family was assumed to be indifferent to photoperiod, while Betula responds strongly to day length. We hypothesized that (1) southern and northern populations of both species perform differently; (2) southern populations perform better in both sites; (3) autumn phenology of southern populations may delay in the northern site; (4) and Sorbus aucuparia is less dependent on light environment. According to the hypotheses, shoot elongation of northern population was inherently low in both species. An evolutionary consequence of this may be a competitive success of southern populations under warming climate. Southern population of B. pendula was delayed in autumn coloration, but not in growth cessation. Sorbus aucuparia was less responsive to light environment. The results suggest that light provides selection pressure in range shifts, but the response is species dependent.

Climate change is assumed to benefit Finnish agriculture by extending the thermal growing season and by milder winters in future. While providing opportunities for Finnish field crop production as new crop species and larger scale use of winter-sown crops, climate change is also amongst the most important global driving forces promoting pest species invasion and establishment into new ranges.

Reduction in the photosynthetic capacity of plants is presumed to negatively affect their fungal symbionts. To test this hypothesis under natural conditions, we artificially removed 100% of previous year needles in two successive years on Scots pine trees (Pinus sylvestris L.) to simulate pine sawfly attack. Despite a decline in the shoot growth of defoliated trees, root biomass did not differ from control trees. The ergosterol (fungal biomass) and starch concentration of fine roots, however, slightly declined in defoliated trees. Percent ectomycorrhizal colonization of fine root tips remained high in both defoliated and control trees. The dominant tubercle morphotypes were slightly more abundant in the control than in defoliated trees. In contrast to the relatively weak effects on vegetative ectomycorrhizae, reproduction declined near the defoliated pines. Average sporocarp numbers and, consequently, the relative fungal investment to reproduction of the estimated total fungal biomass were more than three times higher near controls than defoliated trees in the first treatment year. Defoliation also reduced the diversity of ectomycorrhizal species producing sporocarps. Mutualistic fungal symbionts may thus alter their reproductive investment in response to restrictions on host resources. Because fungal biomass in the roots as well as colonization percentage remained unchanged, Scots pine evidently continues to invest in the maintenance of the symbiosis despite the reduced photosynthetic capacity due to defoliation.