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The structure of Augustine's theological system seeks to solve the problem of human salvation. From the ontological and epistemological point of view, Augustine considers elements involved in the realization of human salvation, among which the most important elements are the Holy Spirit. It seems that according to Augustine's theological system, the Holy Spirit plays a role in human salvation in three areas: a- introducing Christ to others; B- Birth of faith in the hearts of believers; C- Partial realization of the grounds for the formation of moral virtues in believers. The Holy Spirit plays a key role for human salvation in these three areas, especially in the realization of moral virtues. Although Augustine has talked and reflected a lot about the Holy Spirit and his functions in the system of existence, he did not pay attention to this position in the design of his system and did not reflect it in the formulation of human salvation, which itself causes defects. He becomes human in the realization of salvation. Therefore, the current study tries to analyze and examine the place of the Holy Spirit in the salvation system by referring directly to Augustine's works and with an analytical-descriptive approach.

Anthropology in psychology under the title of "personality theories" has been able to be effective in the field of behavioral studies and interpersonal relationships. The need to explain and analyze the true nature of man in the field of "being" - contrary to psychological personality theories that generally identify human nature in the field of "appearance" - caused this article based on Sadra's anthropological opinions and view According to Allport's trait theory, which is one of the pioneers of the trait approach, it should be organized by descriptive-analytical method. The individualistic approach based on traits is the main feature of Allport's and Mulla Sadra's personality theory. The foundation of personality in both theories is based on the most profound characteristics of person; However, in the analysis of Mulla Sadra's philosophical texts, the quality of the appearance of these traits and why they influence the structure of personality and, accordingly, human behavior, have been explained. "Self" or ego, contrary to its abstract concept in Alport's view, is a real and existential thing in Sadrai's system. The dynamism and unity of Alporti's personality can be rationally explained by the rule of "unity of the known and the known" and "intrinsic volitional movement".

In the history of western and eastern philosophy, the discussion of science and perception has been centered on the soul, and the body has been on the sidelines. Islamic philosophers, especially Masha'is, consider science and perception to be the function of the soul and not the body. In this research, we try to analyze the views of Ibn-Sina and Maurice Merleau-Ponty's thoughts about bodily perception using an analytical-descriptive method and a comparative approach. In this regard, first Ibn-Sina's views on the principles of psychology and then the role of the body in perception are analyzed. Then, the phenomenology of perception and the role of the body in it are examined from the perspective of Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Believing in the duality of soul and body, Ibn-Sina considers the soul as the basis of perception, but at the same time, he is not oblivious to the role of the body in the matter of perception. He sees the soul as a rider that uses its compound, the body, in actions and perception. On the other hand, according to Merleau-Ponty, the soul and the body are united and the body has a more prominent role in perception; in other words, the body is considered the only way to perceive existence.

Angels play a central role for Augustine in the Bible and, consequently, in the doctrine of salvation. In his works, he seeks to design a structure to explain the ontological position of angels in order to introduce them as important elements of the theology of salvation. Belief in angels as the helpers of Christ, and Christ himself as the agent of salvation, raises a fundamental question in Augustine's thought: how can the functional role of angels in the process of salvation be considered in the context of the Bible in view of Christ as the Savior of mankind. The authors believe that Augustine interprets the Bible in three stages to solve this dilemma: first, he offers a new interpretation of the theology of the Bible in order to give a different color to the incarnation, and to maintain Christ's superiority over the angels; Second, it describes the role of angels in mediating salvation in view of Christ's saving dignity, and third, it outlines a system of spiritual battle. However, studies show that he did not succeed in this goal. In this study, we aim to consider the basics of the theology of salvation according to the role of angels in Augustine's thought and how it is combined with the place of Christ's salvation, relying on works such as Genesis and commentaries on the Holy Trinity, Psalms and the City of God and his other works. Examine with interpretive-analytical method.

In the section of soul of the Islamic philosophy, imagination faculty is one of the inner faculties of human beings; this faculty is preserver and preceptor of the imaginative forms, and has epistemological, anthropological and eschatological functions. Contrary to former philosophers, Mulla Sadra by proving the abstractness of imagination faculty, setting it as a fundamental principle for demonstrating the physical resurrection. In this essay, by collecting the philosophical foundations for demonstration abstractness of imagination faculty, we shall express its arguments, and the effects of the abstractness of this faculty. In the works of Mulla Sadra, there are no traces of the effects and branches of the abstractness of imagination faculty explicitly, and the function of them didn’t express for explanation of physical resurrection. The achieved effects of abstractness of imagination faculty and its branches, show that theory of mulla sadra in explanation of physical resurrection enjoys of coherence more than other theories. Some of the results about the next world that achieved by demonstration of abstractness of imagination faculty are as fallowing: philosophical explanation for entrance of imperfect souls into the next world, occurrence of reword and punishment in the grave world occurrence of pleasures and sufferings in the next world, demonstrating that heaven and hell are perceptive forms, and they exist in the soul world proving that blessing in the next world are permanent, establishing that there is no contradiction between created forms, and there is no material complications for blessings of the next world.

The truth of knowledge was considered by western philosophers and epistemologists long time ago unclear sentence. They were mostly foundationalists or coherentists in the justification element. Muslim philosophers specifically paid attention to the problem of knowledge, and defined it as constant certainty corresponding reality. In consideration of ternary definition of knowledge, it can be deduced that Muslim philosophers accepted the corresponding theory in truth element, and accepted foundationalism in justification element. Though, epistemological model of Sadra is different from those of Muslim philosophers in consideration of different evaluations of statements, and emphasis on different role and place of proof and mystic intuition in reaching knowledge, and on the other hand, by accepting that knowledge is existential, and by reducing conceptual knowledge to immediate knowledge. Understanding of Mulla Sadra's theory requires examining his method of the justification element. Various aspects are indicated to distinguish between the Transcendent Philosophy and other philosophical schools. In this view, mystic intuition can play a justifying role. From viewpoint of Mulla Sadra, what should be followed are proof and mystic intuition. In the Sadra’s system, revelation is the criterion for evaluation of mystic intuition. So, reaching knowledge demands the existence of proof or mystic intuition, and the truth of the latter should be evaluated by the revelation. Epistemic system of Sadra is formed by three elements of proof, mystic intuition, and revelation being interrelated to each other. Explaining the epistemological role of proof, mystic intuition, and revelation addresses the context of justification, uncovering the theory of the Transcendent Philosophy about the knowledge. Methods This study describes the problems, analyzes them, and in some cases, criticizes them using a literature review. Results and discussion After determination of the ternary epistemic elements, viz. proof, mystic intuition, and revelation, it can be concluded that real knowledge is gained through proof or mystic intuition. In an initial look, it seems that proof and mystic intuition are different, but since he believes that real knowledge is the immediate knowledge, it can be believed that proof and mystic intuition are single and the same, and that the reality of both is the existential encountering with non-material reality. Each of proof and mystic intuition is preparing a cause for encountering non-material existence and gaining knowledge. After considering the theories that set forth the justifying element in the Sadra’s system, and examining their faults according to this system, another theory is reached herein about justifying element, which is not just foundationalism or coherentism. Conclusion In our opinion, in consideration of epistemological foundations of the Transcendent Philosophy, one cannot believe that Mulla Sadra's theory of justification is the same as those of other Muslim epistemologists. Mulla Sadra's theory of justification is a compound one that authors named it as “existential foundherentism”. From the viewpoint of Mulla Sadra, proof and mystic intuition (purification of the soul) are the preparing causes for the existential encountering of non-material existence, and consequently, for justifying the beliefs. Coherentism of Mulla Sadra and his reliance on proof is the realm of conceptual knowledge. This means that in the realm of conceptual knowledge, he believes in two kinds of statements, i.e. foundational and non-foundational, and justifies the latter by the former. Mulla Sadra's cohrtentism implies his belief of conceptual knowledge to be compatible with immediate knowledge, the latter being compatible to the former. In consideration of Mulla Sadra's foundation, the reality of proof and mystic intuition is unique and the same, and that reality is immediate encountering the object of knowledge. This encountering, as a result, is a product of proof or purification of the soul, that is, both promote the existence of the knower and put him/her in the presence of object of the knowledge, and just here, object of the knowledge attends for the knower and the identity of knower and known occurs. The compound theory named “existential foundherentism”, pays attention both to the role of proof and the mystic intuition. Although in some of his works, Mulla Sadra only emphasizes the proof for justifying the statements, his final viewpoint is to follow proof or mystic intuition, and that proof proves, hence it cannot be incompatible with the mystic intuition, and real proof is not against to the mystic intuition.

Great importance of two fields of religion and morality necessitates the study of their relation. Religion and morality contribute to each other in many ways. However, in some cases, religious and moral propositions seem to be incompatible. Therefore, profound philosophical research is required to investigate possible relations and conflicts of these two fields. Religion and Morality: An Investigation into Types of Morality's Dependence on Religion has studied these issues and since this work is used as a textbook for students of philosophy of morality and philosophy of religion in master's level, it should be critically analyzed. The method we have applied in this article is library research as well as analytic. First, the necessity of this research has been pointed out. Next, this book has been analyzed in terms of its form, and its advantages and disadvantages have been mentioned. Later, the book has been investigated in terms of its content mentioning its advantages and disadvantages in this respect as well. Finally, some suggestions have been provided for the improvement of this work.

The point of this article is to explain the process of existence evolution from “graded unity of being” to “individual unity of being“; In this regard, the “graded unity of being” and its fundamentals in “Transcendent Theosophy” as well as “individual unity of being” and its different statements have been primarily investigated, then it would be explained in the position of research and investigation; so that firstly Mulla Sadra presumed the detachment of these two kinds and secondly he represented departure from graded unity (the primary viewpoint) to individual unity (the final viewpoint) in his theosophy. Mulla Sadra initially denied the causality and multiplicity of the “quiddity” and “limited possible beings” in order to be able to explain the mechanism of such process; To prove such explanation he appeals to two kinds of argumentations upon representing a specific analysis of causality: a)Argumentation through cause b)Argumentation through effect. In another word, assigning the effects to the affairs and based on the infiniteness of the necessary being as well as being originating, he proofed his desired idea; thus clarifying the mystical claim- individual unity of being- he became successful in approximating philosophy to mysticism and subsequently the transcendence of theosophy.

Abstract Moral issues are studied in the three realms of metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Utilitarianism is one of the important view in normative ethics. J.J.C. Smart is one of the most distinguished act-utilitarian whose thoughts are highly influenced by Sidgwick’ ideas. Smart has tried to answer two current criticisms leveled against utilitarianism, i.e. the conflict with moral intuitions and the difficulties of calculating the consequences of actions. Thus, first he denies the epistemological validity of moral intuitions and adopts a noncognitivist approach. In some cases that fulfillment of utilitarian action results in conflict with moral intuitions, he appeals to distinction between the context of theory and the context of action. In order to remove the problem of calculating, he benefits from games theory and application of mixed strategy as well as the axiom of ripples on the pond. In this essay, following the presentation of the theoretical foundation of smart’s idea, some criticism will be levelled and finally his answers to them will be evaluated.

The problem of evil is one the most important challenges presented to the belief in the existence of an Omnipotent, Omniscient and All-Benevolent God. The toughest side of this problem is that there seems to be an inconsistency between these attributes and the existence of evil. The aforementioned inconsistency is not straightforward, but rather it requires to be supplemented by additional premises so as to connote "what an Omnipotent being would be able to do and what an All-Good being would be motivated to do". The latter statement implicitly indicates the logical side of the problem but there are alternative articulations of the problem which challenge the believers and ask them to give intelligible answers. This essay is an effort to explicate Boethius's point of view on this issue. As a fifth century Christian thinker, he has addressed the problem in a different manner. During the time he was awaiting execution by Theodoric -the king of the Ostrogoths- Boethius penned one of the most renowned works of philosophy ever, The Consolation of Philosophy. In a dialogue with the goddess of Philosophy, he reflects on his being betrayed by the colleagues and friends and wonders why an innocent man like him should be jailed and punished and wait for his execution. He pays much attention to the problem of evil and says: the heart-rending cause of my depression is that despite the existence of a good-natured ruler in this world, evil still exists and the evil-minded people even pass unpunished . . . Whereas the wickedness holds the helm and is thriving, the virtue not only does not face any reward, but rather it is being crushed underfoot by criminals and she pays the penalty of crimes herself. The fact that in spite of the rule of an Omnipotent and Omniscient God whose will is merely disposed to goodness such terrible things happen, strikes me with wonder and unending regret." These quoted words of Boethius suggest that he approaches the problem of evil from two respects, firstly, why in a world ruled by an Omnipotent, Omniscient and All-Benevolent God evils occur, secondly, why the world affairs proceed reversely and the upper hand is always for the evil and goods fall underfoot and defeated? Trying to prepare the necessary premises to answer these objections, Boethius turns to the nature of happiness. He distinguishes between two kinds of happiness: genuine happiness and ingenuine happiness. The goddess of philosophy invites Boethius to make the most of his imprisonment as an opportunity due to which he could meditate on truth and recognize that worldly and carnal interests do not lead to true happiness. The occurrence of evils can open the eyes of Boethius to higher truths. Now that he has lost all his material interests and possessions and ended up behind bars and does not have anything around, he understands that it is only God who can lead man to happiness in its genuine sense. In these conditions, he is delivered from all bondages and can easily pursue happiness via focusing on virtues, meditation and contemplation. He strongly asserts that when he got pleased by material interests he could not think about genuine happiness and understand it. Thanks to the conditions he faces in prison, Boethius has found that superficial ease does not imply genuine happiness and the pains which strike him pave the way for the disclosure of a higher good to him. God prescribed the imprisonment of Boethius so that the necessary ground to be prepared for the higher good to emerge which is the Christian philosopher's acquaintance with genuine happiness. In modern times, this is called promotion of justice based on higher goods.Then the answer Boethius gives to the objection he propounded at first is that pure goodness of God does not necessarily imply that he has to remove all evils once forever particularly when an evil gets things ready for the rise of a higher good. The knowledge gained by Boethius was indeed a higher good which made possible through his imprisonment and this is why God prescribed his imprisonment. The second problem which occupies this thinker's mind is that the world appears in a way as if it works reversely and evils always get the helm and have the upper hand and goods are invariably defeated and crushed underfoot. Then if God is merciful and benevolent he should not allow the goods to be suppressed by wicked fiends. One of the answers which Boethius has given to this problem is that God has conferred the primordial sense of goodness upon all human individuals. In Consolations of Philosophy, the goddess of philosophy states: all human beings have been equipped with the primordial sense of goodness but sometimes man fails to choose the path which ends up in good. Consequently, the world does not work in a reversed direction. Then there is goodness in the world whether the man recognizes it correctly or not. Particularly man is after her/his happiness and "since the genuine happiness is the highest of all goods, it is clear that human beings are essentially pro-goodness, the highest good is equally meant by the good and evil people though the former pursue it through natural practice of virtues but the latter seek to obtain it following their whims and carnal desires." Although all human individuals are after good (happiness), but it is only good-natured individuals who reach it. Then wicked people do not touch genuine good and this is why the life of good people has priority over evil people. On the other hand, Boethius believes that man has been created freely. And since this is the case, everyone is responsible before his/her own actions and moral evils can be explained resorting to free will. Though man is better to follow divine ordinances but s/he has been created as a free agent and can intentionally choose other ways to tread say devote himself to his own personal interests or make the evils his destination. Boethius sees human disposition toward evils a deviation from his/her primordial nature and believes this wrong turn leads to no more than human misery. Thus conceived, all worldly prosperities fade away in the face of eternal happiness resulted from adherence to goodness. Chasing evil intentions distances man from this eternal happiness and this is the greatest loss one would undergo. By promotion of evils man gradually gets metamorphosed and loses his/her power of discretion and ceases to be a thinking being.

The problem of evil is one the most important challenges presented to the belief in the existence of an Omnipotent, Omniscient and All-Benevolent God. The toughest side of this problem is that there seems to be an inconsistency between these attributes and the existence of evil. The aforementioned inconsistency is not straightforward, but rather it requires to be supplemented by additional premises so as to connote "what an Omnipotent being would be able to do and what an All-Good being would be motivated to do". The latter statement implicitly indicates the logical side of the problem but there are alternative articulations of the problem which challenge the believers and ask them to give intelligible answers. This essay is an effort to explicate Boethius's point of view on this issue. As a fifth century Christian thinker, he has addressed the problem in a different manner. During the time he was awaiting execution by Theodoric -the king of the Ostrogoths- Boethius penned one of the most renowned works of philosophy ever, The Consolation of Philosophy. In a dialogue with the goddess of Philosophy, he reflects on his being betrayed by the colleagues and friends and wonders why an innocent man like him should be jailed and punished and wait for his execution. He pays much attention to the problem of evil and says: the heart-rending cause of my depression is that despite the existence of a good-natured ruler in this world, evil still exists and the evil-minded people even pass unpunished . . . Whereas the wickedness holds the helm and is thriving, the virtue not only does not face any reward, but rather it is being crushed underfoot by criminals and she pays the penalty of crimes herself. The fact that in spite of the rule of an Omnipotent and Omniscient God whose will is merely disposed to goodness such terrible things happen, strikes me with wonder and unending regret." These quoted words of Boethius suggest that he approaches the problem of evil from two respects, firstly, why in a world ruled by an Omnipotent, Omniscient and All-Benevolent God evils occur, secondly, why the world affairs proceed reversely and the upper hand is always for the evil and goods fall underfoot and defeated? Trying to prepare the necessary premises to answer these objections, Boethius turns to the nature of happiness. He distinguishes between two kinds of happiness: genuine happiness and ingenuine happiness. The goddess of philosophy invites Boethius to make the most of his imprisonment as an opportunity due to which he could meditate on truth and recognize that worldly and carnal interests do not lead to true happiness. The occurrence of evils can open the eyes of Boethius to higher truths. Now that he has lost all his material interests and possessions and ended up behind bars and does not have anything around, he understands that it is only God who can lead man to happiness in its genuine sense. In these conditions, he is delivered from all bondages and can easily pursue happiness via focusing on virtues, meditation and contemplation. He strongly asserts that when he got pleased by material interests he could not think about genuine happiness and understand it. Thanks to the conditions he faces in prison, Boethius has found that superficial ease does not imply genuine happiness and the pains which strike him pave the way for the disclosure of a higher good to him. God prescribed the imprisonment of Boethius so that the necessary ground to be prepared for the higher good to emerge which is the Christian philosopher's acquaintance with genuine happiness. In modern times, this is called promotion of justice based on higher goods.Then the answer Boethius gives to the objection he propounded at first is that pure goodness of God does not necessarily imply that he has to remove all evils once forever particularly when an evil gets things ready for the rise of a higher good. The knowledge gained by Boethius was indeed a higher good which made possible through his imprisonment and this is why God prescribed his imprisonment. The second problem which occupies this thinker's mind is that the world appears in a way as if it works reversely and evils always get the helm and have the upper hand and goods are invariably defeated and crushed underfoot. Then if God is merciful and benevolent he should not allow the goods to be suppressed by wicked fiends. One of the answers which Boethius has given to this problem is that God has conferred the primordial sense of goodness upon all human individuals. In Consolations of Philosophy, the goddess of philosophy states: all human beings have been equipped with the primordial sense of goodness but sometimes man fails to choose the path which ends up in good. Consequently, the world does not work in a reversed direction. Then there is goodness in the world whether the man recognizes it correctly or not. Particularly man is after her/his happiness and "since the genuine happiness is the highest of all goods, it is clear that human beings are essentially pro-goodness, the highest good is equally meant by the good and evil people though the former pursue it through natural practice of virtues but the latter seek to obtain it following their whims and carnal desires." Although all human individuals are after good (happiness), but it is only good-natured individuals who reach it. Then wicked people do not touch genuine good and this is why the life of good people has priority over evil people. On the other hand, Boethius believes that man has been created freely. And since this is the case, everyone is responsible before his/her own actions and moral evils can be explained resorting to free will. Though man is better to follow divine ordinances but s/he has been created as a free agent and can intentionally choose other ways to tread say devote himself to his own personal interests or make the evils his destination. Boethius sees human disposition toward evils a deviation from his/her primordial nature and believes this wrong turn leads to no more than human misery. Thus conceived, all worldly prosperities fade away in the face of eternal happiness resulted from adherence to goodness. Chasing evil intentions distances man from this eternal happiness and this is the greatest loss one would undergo. By promotion of evils man gradually gets metamorphosed and loses his/her power of discretion and ceases to be a thinking being.

Mullā Sadrā has frequently used Quranic verses in the chapter on "soul" in his Al-Shawāhid al-rubūbiyah, like many of his other works. In this paper, we shall analyze the application of these verses for the study of soul. For this purpose, applications of the verses in this topic are classified into four parts; and then the eligilbility of the applications of these verses in those positions is evaluated. At first glance, it seems that Mullā Sadrā has applied these verses properly; But the result of this evaluation is that in many cases, his philosophical views and assumptions have caused his understanding of these verses and applying them in special positions and cases are inconsistent with their apparent meaning and pattern and therefore this is a kind of wrong and invalid exegesis. Only in a few cases, his applications of the verses and their interpretations are consistent with their apparent meaning and pattern; he has made use of his philosophical basics in the presentation of such correct and certain interpretations.