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Abstract Although several studies have been conducted in Bangladesh regarding sleep problems during the COVID-19 pandemic, none have utilized a large nationwide sample or presented their findings based on nationwide geographical distribution. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore the total sleep duration, night-time sleep, and daily naptime and their associated factors as well as geographic information system (GIS) distribution. A cross-sectional survey was carried out among 9730 people in April 2020, including questions relating to socio-demographic variables, behavioral and health factors, lockdown, depression, suicidal ideation, night sleep duration, and naptime duration. Descriptive and inferential statistics, both linear and multivariate regression, and spatial distribution were performed using Microsoft Excel, SPSS, Stata, and ArcGIS software. The results indicated that 64.7% reported sleeping 7–9 h a night, while 29.6% slept less than 7 h nightly, and 5.7% slept more than 9 h nightly. 43.7% reported 30–60 min of daily nap duration, whereas 20.9% napped for more than 1 h daily. Significant predictors of total daily sleep duration were being aged 18–25 years, being unemployed, being married, self-isolating 4 days or more, economic hardship, and depression. For nap duration, being aged 18–25 years, retired, a smoker, and a social media user were at relatively higher risk. The GIS distribution showed that regional division areas with high COVID-19 exposure had higher rates of non-normal sleep duration. Sleep duration showed a regional heterogeneity across the regional divisions of the country that exhibited significant associations with a multitude of socioeconomic and health factors.

Abstract Background Stress affects adolescents’ daily lives by disrupting their working capacity and begets comorbidity. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of stress symptoms and the factors associated with these symptoms among secondary school-going adolescents in Bangladesh. Methods A cross-sectional study using two-stage cluster sampling was conducted. A self-administered questionnaire was given to 2355 adolescents from nine secondary schools in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Of the respondents, 2313 completed the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10). Sociodemographic information, self-reported body image, a modified Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ), and the WHO Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) were used to determine the sociodemographic and lifestyle factors associated with stress symptoms among adolescents. Results Findings suggest that about 65% of adolescents experienced moderate stress symptoms, and about 9% experienced high-stress symptoms. Females (58.7%) suffered more from stress compared to males (41.3%). Age, grade, and residential setting were significantly associated with stress. Logistic regression estimates show that level of physical activity (AOR: 1.52; 95% CI:1.26–1.84), sleep dissatisfaction (AOR: 1.33; 95% CI: 1.07–1.65), and perception of self as overweight/obese (AOR: 1.46; 95% CI: 1.13–1.89) were significantly associated with stress symptoms among adolescents. Conclusions Stress symptoms are highly prevalent among secondary school adolescents in Bangladesh. Further exploratory investigations are needed on possible intervention strategies to reduce the burden of stress among adolescents.

Abstract Objectives In addition to risking their physical well-being, frontline physicians are enduring significant emotional burden both at work and home during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This study aims to investigate the levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms and to identify associated factors among Bangladeshi physicians during the COVID-19 outbreak. Methods and design A cross-sectional study using an online survey following a convenience sampling technique was conducted between April 21 and May 10, 2020. Outcomes assessed included demographic questions, COVID-19 related questions, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Results The survey was completed by 412 Bangladeshi physicians. The findings revealed that, in terms of standardized HADS cut-off points, the prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms among physicians was 67.72% and 48.5% respectively. Risk factors for higher rates of anxiety or depressive symptoms were: being female, physicians who had experienced COVID-19 like symptoms during the pandemic, those who had not received incentives, those who used self-funded personal protective equipment (PPE), not received adequate training, lacking perceived self-efficacy to manage COVID-19 positive patients, greater perceived stress of being infected, fear of getting assaulted/humiliated, being more connected with social media, having lower income levels to support the family, feeling more agitated, less than 2 h of leisure activity per day and short sleep duration. All these factors were found to be positively associated with anxiety and depression in unadjusted and adjusted statistical models. Conclusions This study identifies a real concern about the prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms among Bangladeshi physicians and identifies several associated factors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given the vulnerability of the physicians in this extraordinary period whilst they are putting their own lives at risk to help people infected by COVID-19, health authorities should address the psychological needs of medical staff and formulate effective strategies to support vital frontline health workers.

Introduction Effective pandemic management requires understanding the level of community knowledge, attitudes of people, and preparedness towards COVID-19. This study aimed to assess gender differences regarding knowledge, attitudes and preparedness toward the COVID-19, among Bangladeshi adults. Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted March– April 2020 among 1050 Bangladeshi adults. A convenience sampling strategy was utilized, and the data were collected online through a self-administered questionnaire. Chisquared tests were used to identify the gender differences regarding knowledge, attitudes and preparedness towards COVID-19. Results Respondents predominately used social media to inform themselves about COVID-19 (68.1%), and females used social media more than males (p

Abstract Background Countrywide lockdown or stay-at-home order has been implemented to slow down the transmission of emergent coronavirus. However, the influence on attitudes and lifestyle due to lockdown amidst the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been poorly understood. The present study aimed to investigate the influence on attitudes and lifestyle due to lockdown amidst the COVID-19 pandemic among Bangladeshi residents. Methods A cross-sectional survey carried out involving 1635 community dwellers across eight divisions in Bangladesh conducted from April 15, 2020 to May 10, 2020. A structured questionnaire incorporating socio-demographic, attitudes towards lockdown and adverse lifestyle amidst lockdown measures was employed to collect data using the Google Forms. Multiple regression analyses were executed to determine the associated factors of positive attitudes towards lockdown and adverse lifestyle. Results The mean scores of attitudes towards lockdown were 67.9 (SD = 8.4) out of 85 with an overall correct rate (positive attitudes) of 79.9%; whereas the mean scores of adverse lifestyle amidst lockdown were 16.1 (SD = 4.8) out of 34 with an overall rate of 47.4%. The factors associated with more positive attitudes towards lockdown included being female, divorced, higher educated, and students. Conversely, being male, having no formal education, and rural residence were associated factors of adverse lifestyle amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusions The findings reflect how the COVID-19 lockdown has preciously impacted the attitudes, and lifestyle of Bangladeshi citizens, which will contribute to promoting appropriate measures during a subsequent zonal or complete lockdown.

Abstract Background Several coronavirus disease (COVID-19) vaccines have already been authorized and distributed in different countries all over the world, including Bangladesh. Understanding public acceptance of such a novel vaccine is vital, but little is known about the topic. Objectives This study aimed to investigate the determinants of intention to receive a COVID-19 vaccine and willingness to pay (WTP) among people in Bangladesh. Methods An anonymous and online-based survey of Bangladeshi people (mean age = 29.96 ± 9.15 years; age range = 18–60 years) was conducted using a self-reported questionnaire consisting of socio-demographics, COVID-19 experience, and vaccination-related information as well as the health belief model (HBM). Multivariable logistic regression was performed to determine the factors influencing COVID-19 vaccination intent and WTP. Results Of the 894 participants, 38.5% reported a definite intention to receive a COVID-19 vaccine, whereas 27% had a probable intention, and among this intent group, 42.8% wanted to get vaccinated as soon as possible. Older age, feeling optimistic about the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccination, believing that vaccination decreases worries and risk of COVID-19 infection, and being less concerned about side effects and safety of COVID-19 vaccination under the HBM construct were found to be significant factors in COVID-19 vaccination intention. Most of the participants (72.9%) were willing to pay for a COVID-19 vaccine, with a median (interquartile range [IQR]) amount of BDT 400/US$ 4.72 (IQR; BDT 200–600/US$ 2.36–7.07) per dose. Factors associated with higher WTP were younger age, being male, having higher education, residing in an urban area, having good self-rated health status, positivity towards COVID-19 vaccination's effectiveness, and being worried about the likelihood of getting infected with COVID-19. Participants who were COVID-19 vaccination intent preferred an imported vaccine over a domestically-made vaccine (22.9% vs. 14.8%), while 28.2% preferred a routine immunization schedule. Conclusion The findings indicate a considerable proportion of Bangladeshi people intended to get vaccinated and had WTP for the COVID-19 vaccine. However, urgent education and awareness programs are warranted to alleviate public skepticism regarding the COVID-19 vaccination.

AimThe aim of this study was to determine the presence of depressive symptoms and understand the potential factors associated with these symptoms among physicians in Bangladesh during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsA cross-sectional study using an online survey was conducted in between April 21 and May 10, 2020, among physicians living in Bangladesh. Participants completed a series of demographic questions, COVID-19-related questions, and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation), test statistics (chi-squared test and logistic regression) were performed to explore the association between physicians’ experience of depression symptoms and other study variables. Stepwise binary logistic regression was followed while conducting the multivariable analysis.ResultA total of 390 physicians completed the survey. Of them, 283 (72.6%) were found to be experiencing depressive symptoms. Predictors which were significantly associated with depressive symptoms were gender (with females more likely to experience depression than males), the presence of sleep disturbance, being highly exposed to media coverage about the pandemic, and fear around (a) COVID-19 infection, (b) being assaulted/humiliated by regulatory forces and (c) by the general public, while traveling to and from the hospital and treating patients during the countrywide lockdown.ConclusionThe findings of this study demonstrate that there is a high prevalence of depressive symptom among physicians especially among female physicians in Bangladesh during the COVID-19 pandemic. Immediate, adequate and effective interventions addressing gender specific needs are required amid this ongoing crisis and beyond.

Abstract Background Healthcare workers (HCWs) who are in the frontline during the COVID-19 pandemic are often under significant pressures that may predispose them to symptoms of poor mental health. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of anxiety and depression among HCWs and factors correlated with mental health concerns during the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh. And, it also aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Bangla version of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted between July and August, 2020. A self-reported online questionnaire was utilized to collect data. The survey included questions concerning socio-demographic, lifestyle, and work setting, as well as the HADS. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multiple linear regression analysis were performed. Results Data from 803 HCWs (50.7% male; mean age: 27.3 [SD = 6.9]; age range: 18-58 years) were included in the final analysis. The Bangla HADS was psychometrically sound, and demonstrated good internal consistency and reliability (α = 0.83), and excellent construct validity. Prevalence estimates of anxiety and depression were 69.5%, and 39.5%, respectively, for less severe symptomology (at least borderline abnormal), and 41.2% and 15.7% for more severe (at least abnormal) symptomology. Regression analyses with the total HADS score as a dependent variable revealed significant (p

Background. The occurrence of high levels of trace metals in foodstuffs represents a significant threat to human health. Vegetables grown in metal-contaminated soil or irrigated with wastewater can accumulate metals and bioaccumulate in the food chain affecting animals and humans. Objectives. The present study aimed to measure the levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and cobalt (Co) in common vegetables grown in the industrial areas of Savar, Bangladesh, and to determine their potential health risks. Methods. Five vegetables species: jute (Corchorus capsularis), red amaranth (Amaranthus gangeticus), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), zucchini (Luffa aegyptiaca) and stem amaranth (Amaranthus viridis) were sampled randomly from agricultural fields across each study site. Vegetable samples were digested in a microwave digestion system (Berghof Microwave MWS-2, Germany). Metal concentrations were determined using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AA-7000, Shimadzu Corporation, Japan). Results. The range of Pb, Cd, Cr and Co in analyzed vegetables was 0.643–3.362, 0.041–0.049, 1.681–2.431 and 1.612–2.492 mg/kg, respectively. The target hazard quotient (THQ) of Pb in zucchini and stem amaranth and the THQs of Cr in all analyzed vegetables was greater than one. The target carcinogenic risk (TCR) of Pb and Cd for all analyzed vegetables was in the unacceptable range. In all vegetable samples, lead content was detected to be higher than the maximum permissible limits. The THQ values indicate the possibility of non-carcinogenic health risk through consumption of these vegetables. In addition, the TCR values of Pb and Cd indicate a lifetime carcinogenic health risks to consumers. Conclusions. Consumption of vegetables grown in this area may pose long-term health risks. Competing Interests. The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Background Anxiety disorder is one of the emerging public health problems in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Likewise, in Bangladesh, a growing number of adolescents are experiencing such symptoms though we have very limited research evidence available. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of anxiety and the factors associated with this condition among urban, semi-urban, and rural school adolescents in Bangladesh. Methods This cross-sectional study used a two-stage cluster sampling procedure. A self-administered questionnaire was conveyed to 2355 adolescents from nine secondary schools of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Of the respondents, 2313 completed the seven-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7). Besides, sociodemographic information, self-reported body image as well as modification of Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ) and WHO Global PA Questionnaire (GPAQ) were used to determine the sociodemographic and lifestyle factors associated with anxiety among adolescents. Results A total of 20.1% of adolescents were experiencing moderate to severe anxiety; of them, a significantly higher proportion (49.9%) of female adolescents were suffering more than males (40.1%). Furthermore, age, student’s grade, father’s educational level, number of family members, and residential setting were found to be significantly associated with anxiety among adolescents. In terms of lifestyle factors, irregular physical activity (AOR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.05–1.63), high screen time (AOR: 1.51; 95% CI:1.21–1.88), sleep dissatisfaction (AOR: 3.79; 95% CI: 3.02–4.76), and underweight body image (AOR: 2.37; 95% CI:1.70–3.28) were found to be significantly associated with anxiety among school adolescents of urban, semi-urban, and rural residential settings. Conclusions Anxiety is prevalent among urban, semi-urban, and rural school adolescents in Dhaka, Bangladesh. To lessen this prevalence of anxiety among Bangladeshi adolescents, evidence-based health programs- healthy school trials—and policies should therefore be taken based on the findings of this study.

BackgroundWhilst very limited studies have demonstrated a correlation between the COVID-19 pandemic and depressive symptoms amongst Bangladeshi medical students, the prevalence and associated factors of depressive symptoms as measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) remains widely unknown.ObjectiveThe study aimed to investigate the prevalence and factors associated with depression symptoms among Bangladeshi medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown period.MethodIn this web-based cross-sectional pilot study, medical students' data was collected using the Google Forms web survey platform after obtaining electronic informed consent. A total of 425 medical students were selected using a systematic sampling technique to accumulate depression symptoms and demographic and pandemic-related information. Depression was measured by a self-administered, validated English version of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) tool. The descriptive analysis utilized frequency and percentages, while the stepwise binary logistic regression analysis was performed to investigate the factors associated with depressive symptoms.ResultAmong 425 medical students, 62.3% were female, 97.4% unmarried. Almost 80.2% of medical students had mild to severe levels of depressive symptoms as characterized by PHQ-9. A significantly higher probability of depression was found amongst female students (adjusted OR = 1.8), those who struggled to stay away from social media (adjusted OR = 1.8), those who tried to be optimistic for maintaining better psychology (adjusted OR = 11.1), and those who always had a sleeping difficulty in the last 4 weeks (adjusted OR = 8.9).ConclusionA very high prevalence of depression symptoms among Bangladeshi medical students was found across the majority of socio-demographic variables. The alarming prevalence and associated factors of depression suggests the need for follow-intensity psychosocial interventions designed for medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic

Background: The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has created several challenges including financial burdens that may result in mental health conditions. This study was undertaken to gauge mental health difficulties during the COVID-19 pandemic and gain an insight into wage earners' mental health.Method: This cross-sectional study was conducted through an online survey. A t total of 707 individual Bangladeshi wage earners were enrolled between 20 and 30 May 2020. The questionnaire had sections on sociodemographic information, COVID-19 related questions, PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scales. STATA version 14.1 program was used to carry out all the analyses.Results: The study revealed that 58.6 and 55.9% of the respondents had moderate to severe anxiety and depressive symptoms, respectively. The total monthly income was

Background: The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of depressive symptom and the factors associated with this condition among urban, semi-urban and rural adolescents in the Dhaka district of Bangladesh.Methods: A cross sectional study using two stage cluster sampling procedure was performed. A self-administered questionnaire was conveyed to 2,355 adolescents from nine secondary schools of Dhaka district of Bangladesh. Of the respondents, 2,313 completed the nine item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Besides, sociodemographic information, self-reported body image as well as modification of Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ) and WHO Global PA Questionnaire (GPAQ) were used to determine the sociodemographic and lifestyle factors associated with depressive symptom among adolescents.Results: A total of 30.1% adolescents were found to be suffering from moderate to severely severe depressive symptom. Females (60.8%) were found suffering significantly more than males (39.2%). Sociodemographic factors, for example, residential setting and family size were found significantly associated with depressive symptom among adolescents. Adjusted estimate of logistic regression shows that physical inactivity (AOR: 1.44; 95% CI: 1.14–1.84), >2 h/day screen time (AOR: 1.68; 95% CI: 1.39–2.03), sleep dissatisfaction (AOR: 3.23; 95% CI: 2.64–3.96), and underweight body image perception (AOR: 2.30; 95% CI: 1.70–3.13) were significantly associated with depressive symptom among adolescents.Conclusions: Among urban, semi-urban and rural school adolescents in Dhaka, Bangladesh, depressive symptom is quite prevalent. To lessen the spread of depressive symptom among Bangladeshi adolescents, urgent steps should therefore be taken.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the physical, mental and financial health of many individuals. Individuals living in impoverished crowded settings may be particularly vulnerable to COVID-19-related stressors. How substantially marginalized groups like impoverished urban-dwelling individuals have been impacted during this pandemic is poorly understood. The present study aimed to investigate the associated factors of financial concerns and symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) during the COVID-19 pandemic among impoverished urban-dwelling individuals residing in Dhaka, Bangladesh.Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted between August and September 2020 using face-to-face interviews in six disadvantaged neighborhoods (“slums”) in Dhaka. Individuals were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire consisting of questions assessing socio-demographics, lifestyle, financial well-being relating to the COVID-19 pandemic, depression, and PTSD.Results: Four-hundred-and-thirty-five individuals (male = 54.7%; mean age = 45.0 ± 12.0 years; age range = 18–85 years) participated. Most (96.3%) reported that their household income decreased due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Factors associated with decreased household incomes included female gender, primary education, joblessness, food scarcity and depression. Depression symptoms were linked to female gender, joblessness, divorce, living in a joint family, excessive sleep and smoking. Low incomes, excessive sleep, joblessness and food scarcity were positively associated with PTSD symptoms. In contrast, less sleep appeared protective against PTSD.Conclusions: Public health initiatives, in particular mental health services that target stress and biocentric approaches that consider how humans interact with multiple facets of nature, should be introduced to mitigate against potential financial and psychological effects of the pandemic on impoverished urban-dwelling individuals in Bangladesh.

Background: Fear is a primary emotional reaction to the deadly coronavirus disease which might be an associated factor for developing depressive symptoms. This study aimed to assess the level and associated factors of fear and depression amid the COVID-19 pandemic among the adult population of Bangladesh. Methods: After providing informed consent, 1050 participants completed the cross-sectional online survey tool. Depressive symptoms and fear were assessed through the PHQ-9 and validated fear of COVID-19 scale (FCV-19S), respectively. Linear regression analysis was performed to predict potential factors of fear and depression. Results: The study finds that females had higher scores for fear of COVID-19 scale (β1' = 1.81; 95% CI: 1.15 to 2.47) and Patient Health Questionnaire (β2' = 1.92; 95% CI: 0.95 to 2.88) than their male counterpart. Respondents considering the virus to be extremely dangerous had higher scores for FCV-19S (β1' = 1.55; 95% CI: 0.66 to 2.44) and PHQ-9 (β2 = 1.59; 95% CI: 0.25 to 2.92). Similarly, respondents considering themselves unsafe and very worried about the virus had increased scores for both FCV-19S and PHQ-9. On other hand, people those were reluctant to use masks (β1' = -1.58; 95% CI: -3.12 to -0.04) or seek doctors’ advice (β1' = -0.93; 95% CI: -1.83 to -0.02) if COVID-19 symptoms appear, had comparatively lower scores for FCV-19S. Conclusions: Fear of COVID-19 and depression were found to be associated with some specific knowledge, attitude & preparedness towards COVID-19 which should be adequately addressed in public health strategies to prevent the virus.

BackgroundDuring the catastrophic situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of the health care workers (HCWs) is the most crucial, and their absenteeism, whether due to inability or unwillingness, becomes a major concern for the national health system. Hence, the present study aimed to determine the willingness and its associated factors to work during the COVID-19 pandemic among the physicians of Bangladesh.MethodsThis was a cross-sectional study conducted from April 21 to May 10, 2020, using an online survey among the Bangladeshi physicians living in the country. Both univariate and multivariable binary logistic regression models were used to determine the predictors of the willingness of the physicians to work during the COVID-19 pandemic.ResultsMore than 69% physicians reported that they were willing to work during the COVID-19 pandemic, 8.9% reported that they were not willing, while 21.4% of participants were not sure about their willingness. Younger age, having experience of treating patients during previous pandemics, working in the emergency departments and high self-reported compliance to the recommended PPE were important predictors of being willing to work during COVID-19 pandemic. Concern for family and risk of transmitting the infection to family members were most commonly reported as major barriers of working during the pandemic (30%) followed by having comorbidities (25%), lack of adequate safety measures (25%), fear of being infected (12.2%), not involved in clinical practice (12.5%) etc.ConclusionsThough the majority of the physicians were willing to work during the COVID-19 pandemic, sufficient supply of PPE, support to maintain recommended quarantine and isolation policy after risky hospital duty along with adequate and effective training can increase their willingness to continue their sacred duty during this crucial pandemic.

Background: It had been seven months since the first confirmed case (8th March, 2020) of COVID-19 in Bangladesh and people have now got a more complete picture of the extent of the pandemic. Therefore, it is time to evaluate the effects of COVID-19 on mental health. The current population-based study aimed to assess the prevalence of depression and PTSD of the quarantined people in Bangladesh during COVID-19 outbreak. Methods: A total of 5792 individuals comprised the population of this study. Subjects were respondents to an online questionnaire that was administered through social media. The questionnaire included questions on personal information, quarantine related knowledge, items of the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies–Depression (CES-D) scale. Data were collected and analyzed by regression utilizing a using IBM SPSS-22 (Statistical Package for Social Science, Chicago, IL, USA). Results: The most post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms had on the male (n = 1392, 75.7%) who had institutional quarantine. The most depression symptoms were on the female (n = 920, 72.8%) whose income was more than 75000 takas in Bangladeshi currency. 81.8% of respondents had PTSD and their scores ≥24 in the IES-R scale. On the other hand, the respondent's income was 40000–74999 takas in Bangladesh currency had more PTSD symptoms and the odd ratio 19.3 (95% CI: 12.5–27.3), adjusted odds ratio 22.9 (95% CI: 15.6–32.4), after adjusting all personal variables. 85.9% respondents scored 16 ≤ in the CES-D scale, meaning they were depressed. The respondents whose education level grade 10 were most depressed and the odd ratio of 3.8 (95% CI: 3.1–4.65), adjusted odds ratio of 13.19 (95% CI: 9.88–17.62) after adjusting all personal variables. Conclusions: The prevalence of depression and PTSD of the quarantined people higher than that of the affected group during the outbreak of COVID-19 in Bangladesh. If the administration and health care workers become conscious of such results, actions and policies can be taken to improve the consequential sufferings.

Objective To determine whether the odds of being a smoker differ based on social media use and social interactions among urban university students in Bangladesh.Hypothesis Social media use and social interactions influence the smoking behaviour of Bangladeshi university students, particularly in starting and maintaining cigarette smoking.Design and setting A cross-sectional study using mixed methods on 600 student smokers and non-smokers recruited from two public and two private universities in Dhaka, Bangladesh, a lower middle-income country with limited resources. Exclusion criteria were those who did not use any form of social media and PhD students.Results Odds of smoking were significantly higher for those who socialised more than 4 hours/day (p

Due to the representation of a particular field condition of soil rather than the real time scenario from laboratory experiments, the selection of unsaturated permeability and flow parameters becomes challenging when conducting numerical modeling. Keeping this in mind, the objective of the study was to determine the permeability in both directions along with the unsaturated flow parameters from field data. Although it is conventional to determine the flow parameters from the curve fitting of laboratory results, a novel approach was carried out during the course of study, wherein field soil water characteristic curves were used to determine the unsaturated flow parameters. Two two-lane roads in Kaufman County and Ellis County, Texas were selected for data acquisition and monitoring in this study. For the investigation of in situ moisture content and matric suction, soil moisture and suction sensors were installed at up to a depth of 4.5 m into the ground, while the precipitation was recorded using rain gauges installed at the sites. Field determination yielded hydraulic conductivity values in the range of 10−4 to 10−5 m/s, representing the rapid flow of water due to desiccation cracks on expansive soil. Field-generated unsaturated flow parameters also indicated variability while constructing the SWCC. Finally, PLAXIS 2D was used for the transient flow analysis. The close agreement of the FE results with the direct field measurements validated the estimated flow parameters. The approach described in the study can be used for determining permeability and unsaturated flow parameter values from field data, which offers a dynamic situation in contrast to the static laboratory condition.

Introduction: School children in the developing countries are susceptible to nutrition related health problems due to demographic and socio-economic factors, as well as limited access to food. Since BMI is a common proxy measure used to evaluate nutritional status, the aim of this study was to investigate the BMI categories in school-aged children in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Methods: A cross sectional study of 155 children, aged 6-12 years was conducted at Jahangirnagar University School in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The data collection was performed by in-person interviews and semi-structured questionnaires. Descriptive statistics, χ2 test, Fisher’s exact test, and One-Way ANOVA test were performed to compare the variables based on BMI percentiles. Data were analyzed using the Microsoft Excel program (version 2010). Results: Mean BMI of the students was 17.27 (SD=3.16). The prevalence of underweight and overweight/obesity was 11.0% and 25.8%, respectively. Categories of BMI percentiles were associated with birth order (p=0.026), personal hygiene practices (washing hands after coming home from outside (p

Background The aim of this study was to investigate the attitude and reactions towards plain tobacco pack among the adult population in Bangladesh. Methods This was a cross-sectional study with mixed method approach. Data was collected from 458 respondents through face-to-face interview for quantitative part and another 40 through in-depth interview with 10 key informants' interview for qualitative part. In every cases of this study, dummy cigarette plain packet, which was developed in comparison with the existing graphic health warning pack,were used. To measure respondents' attitude on different aspect of plain tobacco pack, a five-point scale was used in this study. Response options for all items were: completely agree (5), slightly agree (4), neither agree nor disagree, that is neutral (3), slightly disagree (2) and completely disagree (1). Furthermore, reaction of the respondents observed by the researcher and it was noted under four subheadings like- Alertness, Unpleased, Concerned and Discomfort. Using a four point scale, response was taken and the options were: more (4), moderate (3), little (2) and negative answer to the statement (1). Thematic content analysis was performed and SPSS version 22.0 software was used for data analysis. Results Of the total respondents 96.5% were positive about the introduction of plain packaging of tobacco products in Bangladesh. About 94% respondents' perceived that it would reduce the attractiveness and appeal of tobacco products. Plain pack was believed to be able to prevent the tobacco advertisement and branding promotion, reduce youth experimentation, misleading consumers, youth tobacco initiation, and motivate tobacco users to quit by the majority of the participants. Conclusions The findings of this study provide baseline information to initiate debate with country policy makers to formulate plain packaging of tobacco products legislation in Bangladesh.

Introuduction: Tobacco smoking is considered to be the key preventable risk factor for morbidity and mortality at the global level. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of tobacco smoking and factors associated with the initiation of smoking among university students in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Methods: A cross-sectional survey study was conducted with 264 students of Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh in 2015. A standard, self-administered questionnaire consisting of questions on socio-demographic variables, tobacco smoking status, family and peer tobacco smoking history, attitudes and beliefs about tobacco smoking, as well as knowledge about the negative health consequences of tobacco smoking was administered to participants. Data were analyzed using logistic regression models, chi square, and Fisher exact tests. Results: The overall prevalence of tobacco smoking was 60.2%, where males smoked at higher rates than females (68.81% and 19.56%, respectively). The influence of friends was the most significant reason for initiating tobacco smoking (OR: 0.862; CI: 0.810-0.917). Perception regarding tobacco smoking was significantly related to continuing tobacco use. Logistic regression models identified that smoking-related attitudes, potential health problems, and family members dying from cardiovascular disease and cancer were significantly associated with tobacco smoking. Conclusion: The current tobacco smoking prevalence among university students in Bangladesh is over 60%. We suggest adopting WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) policies, especially for university students.

As the textile industry expands, more industrial waste effluents are released into natural water streams, prompting the research and development of innovative materials for the remediation of environmental issues. In this research, a direct precipitation and hydrolysis method were used to synthesize ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles, respectively that were utilized to investigate the photocatalytic activity of Congo Red (CR) dye. Afterward, the crystallite size was computed from the data of the X-ray diffractometer (XRD), and utilizing several models (Scherrer equation, LSLMSE, Monshi-Scherrer equation, Williamson-Hall model, Size-strain plot method, Halder-Wagner model, Sahadat-Scherrer model). Among these models, the size-strain plot model yields the most accurate crystal size (45.31 nm) for ZnO nanoparticles and the Halder-Wagner model (2.44 nm) for TiO2 nanoparticles. Scanning Electron Microscope exhibited the spherical shape of nanoparticles (ZnO, and TiO2) with particle size (less than 151 nm). The absorption spectrum from Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed the formation of nanoparticles (ZnO, and TiO2). Thereafter, the photocatalytic activity of the ZnO-TiO2 nanocomposite was evaluated by using Congo Red (CR) dye under different process variables, such as catalyst dose, time, initial dye concentration, pH, radical scavenging ability, and reusability. The best degradation (90 %) was recorded at 180 min time intervals using a 0.2 g catalyst dose with a 20 ppm CR concentration at pH 9.

In this study, the waste newspaper was utilized to prepare carbon aerogel (CA) for adsorptive removal of Metformin hydrochloride (MH) (antidiabetic drug residues) from the aqueous system. The prepared CA was characterized using Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analyser. The MH adsorption was carried out using two types of water, one was laboratory-prepared distilled water and another was real river water. Although, optimum removal around 87 % was observed at pH 3, the removal efficiency at about 63 % estimated at neutral pH. In river water experiment, slightly lower rate of adsorption about 59 % was noticed. Nearly 61 % removal was found for 120 min and then no significant adsorption was found. The pseudo-second-order kinetics and Freundlich isotherm models presented a good interpretation of the adsorption experiment data. Physio-sorption was the primary mechanism of the MH adsorption was confirmed by Temkin and D-R isotherms studies. Regeneration studies demonstrated the removal stability of CA around 32 % until five cycles. An adsorption mechanism was also proposed for the removal of metformin hydrochloride using carbon aerogel.

This study dealt with naturally occurring biotite from the river sediment to synthesize biotite based composite to evaluate antimicrobial activities against gram positive bacteria, negative bacteria and fungi. Biotite mineral, and synthesized carbon aerogel –biotite (CBt) composite and carbon aerogel-biotite –ZnO (CBtZ) composites were considered for the antimicrobial study. The samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction technique and different crystallographic parameters were computed applying X-ray diffraction data. Also, FESEM was performed to understand the surface morphology of the samples. Crystal size of the biotite, CBt and CBtZ were computed 103.215, 57.567, and 36.496 nm respectively. Tabulated microstrain are 0.175, 0.499 and 0.935 for the biotite, CBt and CBtZ respectively. Various models and equations were used to justify crystallite size, including the Williamson-Hall plot, linear straight line model, Scherrer equation, Monshi-Scherrer model, Size-strain plot (SSP) model, Halder-Wagner method and Sahadat-Scherrer model. For the both composite samples, following models confirmrd the presence of nanocrystal with a range of 50.789–97.777 nm (CBt) and 36.496–105.843 nm(CBtZ). However, for the biotite, all mentioned models were proved invalid except scherrer equation, SSP model and Monshi-Scherrer model. Linear straight line model was found invalid to calculate crystallite size of the three samples. Moreover, different crystal parameters like dislocation density, volume of the unit cell, lattice parameters were computed. Zone of inhabitation estimation method was employed to estimate antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella abony, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans. Required minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) together with minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) also estimated in this study. Crystal size effect on the antimicrobial activities of the samples were evaluated in this study.

The present study focuses on the adsorption efficacy of solid-state synthesized calcium silicate for removing congo red dye. Three different sources were used as calcium precursors; one was calcium carbonate, and the other two were natural waste sources, aragonite (P. globosa) and calcite (Eggshells). Structural analysis and functional groups of the samples were carried out by X-ray diffractometer (XRD), and a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR). Various well-known models/equations models such as the Liner Straight Line method of Scherrer’s equation (LSLMSE), Sahadat-Scherrer Model (SSM), Monshi-Scherrer model (MSM), Williamson-Hall model (WHM), Size-Strain plot method (SSP), and Halder-Wagner Model (HWM) were applied to compute the crystallite size of the synthesized calcium silicates; the estimated crystallite size range was 8–77 nm. The adsorption efficacy of the synthesized E-CaSiO3, S-CaSiO3, and C-CaSiO3 was assessed under various provisos for eradicating Congo red dye from wastewater. Computed results revealed that the dye removal percentages were approximately 100 % at 120 min and 200 rpm for 0.2 g E-CaSiO3. The point of zero charge evaluation showed that the pH of the adsorbents during maximum dye removal was 7 and was less than the value of pHpzc. Thermodynamics studies confirmed that the adsorption process was spontaneous. The method of adsorption of dye by the adsorbent was more clearly comprehended by Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin adsorption isotherm. 151.28 mg/g was the maximum adsorption capacity for S- CaSiO3 depending on the Langmuir isotherm model’s linear form (R2 = 0.924).

This study was explored the photocatalytic efficiency of biotite and ZnO embedded carbon aerogel (CA) photocatalyst to degrade ciprofloxacin (CIP) antibiotic from an aqueous medium by sunlight harvesting. CA came from waste newspaper through pyrolysis technique. Biotite was extracted from Bramapurta River's sand through high-tension magnetic separation techniques. The developed catalyst was characterized by applying FESEM, EDS, XRD, and XPS. The bandgap (1.69 eV) of the catalyst was determined from Tauc's plot. The photocatalytic study showed that, optimum degradation was achieved at 98.471 %, 84.576 %, 77.997 % and 59.607 % for 2, 5, 10 and 20 mg/L CIP containing solution respectively in 180 min at its natural pH applying only employing 0.25 g/L dosage. Moreover, in the pH study, catalyst showed maximum degradation 88.773 % for 5 mg/L CIP containing solution at pH 7 exposing the same irradiation time and dosage. The degradation followed pseudo-first-order kinetics with a maximum rate constant of 0.01831 min−1 which attributes to the first degradation of CIP through ROS. The scavenger test suggested that •OH− and e− played a vital role in the photodegradation process. Regeneration studies confirmed that photocatalysts showed better degradation efficiency until five cycles. Fusion of metal oxides in the catalyst might play a vital role in the multiple photodegradation cycles without losing stability of the composite. FESEM, EDS, and XPS characterization of the spent catalyst was performed for understanding its morphological and chemical change. An antimicrobial study was performed to confirm its efficiency against of gram-negative bacteria (E. coli) and gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus), which suggested that the catalyst is very effective in destroying gram-negative bacteria compared to gram-positive bacteria.

This study examines the photocatalytic activity of the green synthesized (using lemon juice) MgO nanoparticles under a halogen light for the degradation of Congo Red (CR). The characterization of the prepared sample was studied by applying Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). By applying XRD analysis, the crystallographic variables of the MgO NPs were determined and the crystallite size was obtained from a variety of formulas/models (Scherrer equation, Williamson-Hall model, Monshi-Scherrer model, Size-Strain Plot, Halder-Wagner model, etc). The crystallite size was found in a valid range of 4.62–99.03 nm. Photocatalytic degradation of Congo Red (CR) has been made under halogen light by considering a dye concentration of 20 ppm at 40 mL solution for 0.05 g of the catalyst sample. Operating conditions were fixed as neutral pH, 25 °C temperature, and 40 min exposure time of the halogen lamp.

The goal of this research was to synthesize activated carbon (AC) from discarded batteries, and the crystallographic characterization of the final product (AC), intermediate product, and raw sources were explored. The formation of activated carbon was confirmed by utilizing an X-ray diffractometer (XRD) that revealed the structure of activated carbon was hexagonal. The crystallite size of activated carbon was computed by applying several model equations (Linear straight-line method of Scherrer's equation, Monshi-Scherrer method, Sahadat-Scherrer method, Size-Strain plot method, Halder-Wagner method, Williamson-Hall method), and the range of calculated crystallite size was 5–28 nm. The weight loss occurred in the two stages those was explored by a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer (FTIR) confirmed that there was no significant change in the peak position between intermediate product and activated carbon except for the intensity and peak separation difference. Field Emission Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) revealed several types of shapes of the waste source, intermediate product, and main product (AC).

In the present investigation, several biogenic sources of calcium were used to produce HAp nanomaterials by the use of a typical wet chemical precipitation technique. To determine the development of HAp nanocrystals, a variety of characterization methods were used, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The results of XRD were used to evaluate a wide range of factors related to structure, such as lattice parameters, degree of crystallinity, dislocation density, microstrain, crystallinity index, and preference growth. The crystallite size of the produced HAp crystals was calculated using the equations of different models. Each of the formed HAp exhibits crystal arrangements that are within the allowed range of 1–150 nm, which the aforementioned models were used to figure out from the XRD information. Furthermore, the EDX examination (Ca, P, and O percentages) and Rietveld refinement (about 95 % HAp) verified the makeup of the resultant HAp particles.

This research work narrates an economically friendly way to synthesize cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) and chitosan (CS) from waste jute bag and shrimp shell, respectively. Different analytical techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were adopted to characterize diverse chemical and physical properties of the prepared samples, for the confirmation of the identity and assessment of the compatibility of the synthesized specimen for the targeted application. Crystallite size and crystallinity index were accounted for using XRD standard for CNC. The degree of deacetylation was also enumerated using chitosan's FT-IR record which was almost 98 %. The rest of this work is based on the hypothesis that, solely, an adsorbent exhibit either negative or positive net charge and shows affinity towards only oppositely charged dye molecules, while an appropriate hybrid blend of both negatively and positively charged adsorbent may show approximately equal affinity toward both anionic and cationic dye. Based on this concept, the potentiality of blending varying percentages of CNC and CS, as an adsorbent was monitored by executing the adsorption process considering different parameters like adsorbate interaction with adsorbent, pH, influence of initial concentration, contact time and dose of adsorbate with mostly found textile dyes Methylene blue (MB) and Congo red (CR) in wastewater which are cationic and anionic respectively. Cellulose nanocrystal and chitosan in the ratio of 50:50 showed an excellent result in the removal of both dye molecules.

In this research, Aloe Vera Gel (AVG) was incorporated into Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR) with jute-cotton union fabric to fabricate partially biodegradable composites. These composites were fabricated using a hand lay-up technique and characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermogravimetry Analysis (TGA), thermal conductivity measurements, water absorption tests, degradation assessments, cracking tests, and Universal Testing Machine (UTM) analysis. The study found that increasing the percentage of AVG in the composites led to a decrease in thermal conductivity, indicating improved insulation properties. Samples reinforced with AVG showed enhanced resistance to damage from iron nails, with reduced scratching and fiber displacement observed. However, the addition of AVG resulted in decreased thermal, mechanical, and water resistance properties compared to composites without AVG. FTIR analysis demonstrated interactions between AVG and the matrix materials. In degradation tests, composites subjected to an alkali environment (PH = 11.96) showed the highest weight reduction (2.22 %) compared to those without AVG. Similarly, composites buried in soil exhibited greater weight loss (2.38 %) than their counterparts lacking AVG. Overall, the developed composite's reduced heat transfer rate suggests its potential application as an insulating material in environments such as rural poultry housing and the automotive industry.

The research involves developing eco-friendly polymer composites by combining synthetic unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) with treated and untreated leather fibers (LF), cow hair fibers (CHF), and chicken feather fibers (CFF). By using these natural fibers instead of synthetic polymer, we aim to reduce the environmental impact while finding new purposes for waste materials from the poultry and tannery industries which would otherwise end up in garbage. The fibers were incorporated into the resin matrix at various weight percentages such as 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, and 15 % (w/w). Additionally, the properties of composites were improved by the addition of different types of inorganic nanoparticles, like CaCO3, Al2O3, and ZnO to the UPR matrix. These composites where inorganic materials were added as filler revealed better results than the neat composites. The composites showed the maximum overall mechanical properties in the bending modulus (BM), bending strength (BS), tensile modulus (TM), and tensile strength (TS) when 5 % of cow hair and chicken feather mixed fiber was used and ZnO was added as filler compared to the other composites. The highest values 4400.415, 68.91, 1788.74, and 34.95 N/mm2 of BM, BS, TM, and TS respectively, were found for the CFF + CHF + UPR + ZnO composite. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) supported mechanical rather than chemical connections between fiber and UPR. Ionizing gamma radiation-modified fiber exhibited superior tensile characteristics when 5 % of cow hair and chicken feather mixed fiber was used.

The ever-increasing quantities of trash produced by the poultry and tannery industries, particularly chicken feathers, cow hairs, and waste leather fibers, pose serious challenges to maintaining a pristine natural environment. In this research, the polymer composites were produced by combining 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, and 15 % (by weight) recycled chicken feather fibers (CFF), cow hair fibers (CHF), and leather fibers (LF) with inorganic materials ZnO, Al2O3, CaCO3, and unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) through a hand lay-up process. After cleaning, a portion of the fibers was subjected to a two-hour soak in 0.20 M KOH at 50 °C, followed by five hours of drying at 60 °C, and the remaining half was not attended. This study successfully reduced environmentally hazardous waste from the poultry and tannery industries. The biodegradation of composites was compared in weather, water, brine, soil and compost over a period of 90 days at 25 °C, suggesting that the composites have potential in a variety of settings. Degradation rates varied among the composites, and the leather fibre-UPR composites (LR + UPR + Al2O3) showed the fastest degradation rate under all media and were especially degraded highest percentages (17.8 %) when buried in compost. Degradation percentages in compost media for (CHF + UPR + Al2O3), (CFF + UPR + Al2O3) and (CHF + CFF + UPR + Al2O3)) composites are 16.3 %, 14.8 %, and 13.5, respectively. The helical structure of the composites disintegrated in thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), losing its chain-linkage skeleton and peptide fiber bridges, and dissolving keratin and collagen into carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The results of the water uptake and thickness swelling study for up to 15 days due to water absorption can have positive effects on the mechanical properties of the composite material and found 8.8 % water uptake and 15.8 % thickness swelling both for (LR + UPR + Al2O3) composite.

In order to modify the surface as well as mechanical properties, polycarbonate (PC) films were grafted with two types of monomers such as 2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate (HEMA) & N-vinyl pyrrolidone (NVP). Material preparation is carried out by a periodic orientation of monomer solutions having methanol of dissimilar concentration in addition with photo-initiator [Irgacure 907]. Polycarbonate (PC) films were cut into dumbbell shape (10 × 3) mm [ASTM], impregnated into the devised solutions and irradiated under both ultraviolet (UV) and Co-60 gamma radiation. Extent of polymer loading (PL) (%) was calculated in order to assess the amount of grafted polycarbonate (PC-g-HEMA) formed under certain conditions of the experiment. Various property parameters such as elongation at break, tensile strength, modulus, absorption of water, gel content etc. were studied. 30% HEMA and 120-min irradiation time showed the better grafting with respect to the qualities studied. Water absorption was found much low by the treated (PC-g-HEMA) samples with compared to the untreated samples. The loss of mechanical property in grafted polycarbonate due to UV aging and simulating weathering degradation was found higher in untreated polycarbonate than that of grafted one. Effect of monomer N-vinyl pyrrolidone (NVP) on to PC films under UV radiation was also examined and various mechanical properties (tensile strength, polymer loading, elongation at break and tensile modulus) were studied. 20% NVP with the duration of 240 min irradiation time showed the maximum mechanical properties. The sample was found to destroy up to the concentration of 20% NVP.

The present work reports on the facile sol–gel synthesis of CoAl2O4 nanoparticles using cobalt nitrate and aluminum nitrate as the metal salts and citric acid and glycerol as chelating agents. The consequence of sintering temperature on the structure, particle size, morphology, composition, zeta potential, color, and reflectance spectra at neutral pH condition were explored with various instrumental techniques. The CoAl2O4 nanoparticles were characterized with Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), Nanoparticle size analyzer, Ultraviolet–Visible Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy (UV–Vis-DRS) and CIE-Lab colorimetric method. From the data of PXRD, the crystallite size and peak profile analysis were investigated by four different models. It was found that the average crystallite size varied in the range of 28.01–320.97 nm and single-phase cubic CoAl2O4 was formed without any impurity. The average particle size of CoAl2O4 nanoparticles was discerned from the FESEM images using ImageJ software and from a nanoparticle size analyzer. The average particle sizes were increased with the increasing sintering temperature. The values of zeta potential found in all of the samples represented high dispersion stability. From the colorimetry of CoAl2O4 nanoparticles, the CIE-La*b* output illustrated high purity and brightness and the spectra.

This research paper dealt with the synthesis and characterization of pure and metal-doped hydroxyapatite covering an in-depth crystallographic analysis. The Scherrer equation, Linear Straight-Line Model, Munshi Scherrer Model, Uniform Deformation Model, Uniform Stress Deformation Model, Uniform Deformation Energy Density Model, Size Strain Model, Halder Wagner Model, and Sahadat Scherrer Model were engaged to estimate crystallite size as well as strain, stress, and energy density from few models. All the models were evaluated with their merits and demerits along with usefulness. All the mentioned models showed acceptable results as the crystallite size ranges were from 22 to 77 nm except Linear Straight-Line Model (revealed invalid results for all the synthesized samples). The modified Williamson-Hall model (Uniform Deformation Model, Uniform Stress Deformation Model, Uniform Deformation Energy Density Model) exerted strain, stress and energy density positive and negative. But Size Strain Model, and Halder Wagner Model resulted in only positive values.