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We report two cases of disseminated hyperinfection by filariae in free‐living primates Saimiri sciureus and Saguinus niger from eastern Amazon. Histopathological examination showed the presence of Dipetalonema gracile microfilariae in blood, liver, lungs, spleen, small intestine, kidney, brain, liver, and adults in peritoneal thoracic cavity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Platy-1 retroposons are short interspersed elements (SINEs) unique to platyrrhine primates. Discovered in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) genome in 2016, these 100 bp mobile element insertions (MEIs) appeared to be novel drivers of platyrrhine evolution, with over 2200 full-length members across 62 different subfamilies, and strong evidence of ongoing proliferation in C. jacchus. Subsequent characterization of Platy-1 elements in Aotus, Saimiri and Cebus genera, suggested that the widespread mobilization detected in marmoset (family Callithrichidae) was perhaps an anomaly. Two additional Callithrichidae genomes are now available, a scaffold level genome assembly for Saguinus imperator (tamarin; SagImp_v1) and a chromosome-level assembly for Saguinus midas (Midas tamarin; ASM2_v1). Here, we report that each tamarin genome contains over 11,000 full-length Platy-1 insertions, about 1150 are shared by both Saguinus tamarins, 7511 are unique to S. imperator, and another 8187 are unique to S. midas. Roughly 325 are shared among the three callithrichids. We identified six new Platy-1 subfamilies derived from Platy-1-8, with the youngest new subfamily, Platy-1-8c_Saguinus, being the primary source of the Saguinus amplification burst. This constitutes the largest expansion of Platy-1 MEIs reported to date and the most extensive independent SINE amplification between two closely related species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) is an endemic fungal disease that occurs in Latin America and primarily affects humans. The disease has been rarely documented in non-human primates. This report details a disseminated and fatal case of PCM caused by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis in a western black-handed tamarin (Saguinus niger) under human care. Histopathological examination revealed extensive pyogranulomatous inflammation in the lungs, spleen, liver, lymph nodes, kidneys, epididymis, right testicle, heart, adrenal gland and intestines, associated with characteristic yeast forms consistent with Paracoccidioides spp and confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Molecular analysis indicated a high nucleotide similarity with P. brasiliensis sequences for both the 18S rRNA and gp43 genes. This naturally occurring infection highlights the susceptibility of these animals to PCM and their role in ecoepidemiology warrants further investigation., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Differential habitat use in sympatric species can provide insight into how behavior relates to morphological differences and as a general model for the study of biological adaptations to different functional demands. In Amazonia, closely related sympatric tamarins of the genera Saguinus and Leontocebus regularly form stable mixed-species groups, but exhibit differences in foraging height and locomotor activity. To test the hypothesis that two closely related species in a mixed-species group prefer different modes of leaping regardless of the substrates available, we quantified leaping behavior in a mixed-species group of Saguinus mystax and Leontocebus nigrifrons. We studied leaping behavior in relation to support substrate type and foraging height in the field for 5 months in the Amazonian forest of north-eastern Peru. Saguinus mystax spent significantly more time above 15 m (79%) and used predominantly horizontal and narrow supports for leaping. Leontocebus nigrifrons was predominantly active below 10 m (87%) and exhibited relatively more trunk-to-trunk leaping. Both species preferred their predominant leaping modes regardless of support type availability in the different forest layers. This indicates that the supports most commonly available in each forest layer do not determine the tamarins' leaping behavior. This apparent behavioral adaptation provides a baseline for further investigation into how behavioral differences are reflected in the morphology and species-specific biomechanics of leaping behavior and establishes callitrichid primates as a model well-suited to the general study of biological adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tamarins are a distinct group of small sized New World monkeys with complex phylogenetic relationships and poorly studied cytogenetic traits. In this study, we applied molecular cytogenetic analyses by fluorescence in situ hybridization with probes specific for telomeric sequences and ribosomal DNA loci after DAPI/CMA3 staining on metaphases from five tamarin species, namely Leontocebus fuscicollis, Leontopithecus rosalia, Saguinus geoffroyi, Saguinus mystax and Saguinus oedipus, with the aim to investigate the distribution of repetitive sequences and their possible role in genome evolution. Our analyses revealed that all five examined species show similar karyotypes, 2n = 46, which differ mainly in the morphology of chromosome pairs 16–17 and 19–22, due to the diverse distribution of rDNA loci, the amplification of telomeric-like sequences, the presence of heterochromatic blocks and/or putative chromosomal rearrangements, such as inversions. The differences in cytogenetic traits between species of tamarins are discussed in a comparative phylogenetic framework, and in addition to data from previous studies, we underline synapomorphies and apomorphisms that appeared during the diversification of this group of New World monkeys.

Background: Biological adaptation manifests itself at the interface of different biologically relevant 'levels', such as ecology, performance, and morphology. Integrated studies at this interface are scarce due to practical difficulties in study design. We present a multilevel analysis, in which we combine evidence from habitat utilization, leaping performance and limb bone morphology of four species of tamarins to elucidate correlations between these 'levels'., Results: We conducted studies of leaping behavior in the field and in a naturalistic park and found significant differences in support use and leaping performance. Leontocebus nigrifrons leaps primarily on vertical, inflexible supports, with vertical body postures, and covers greater leaping distances on average. In contrast, Saguinus midas and S. imperator use vertical and horizontal supports for leaping with a relatively similar frequency. S. mystax is similar to S. midas and S. imperator in the use of supports, but covers greater leaping distances on average, which are nevertheless shorter than those of L. nigrifrons. We assumed these differences to be reflected in the locomotor morphology, too, and compared various morphological features of the long bones of the limbs. According to our performance and habitat utilization data, we expected the long bone morphology of L. nigrifrons to reflect the largest potential for joint torque generation and stress resistance, because we assume longer leaps on vertical supports to exert larger forces on the bones. For S. mystax, based on our performance data, we expected the potential for torque generation to be intermediate between L. nigrifrons and the other two Saguinus species. Surprisingly, we found S. midas and S. imperator having relatively more robust morphological structures as well as relatively larger muscle in-levers, and thus appearing better adapted to the stresses involved in leaping than the other two., Conclusion: This study demonstrates the complex ways in which behavioral and morphological 'levels' map onto each other, cautioning against oversimplification of ecological profiles when using large interspecific eco-morphological studies to make adaptive evolutionary inferences., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Wildlife trafficking creates favorable scenarios for intra- and inter-specific interactions that can lead to parasite spread and disease emergence. Among the fauna affected by this activity, primates are relevant due to their potential to acquire and share zoonoses - infections caused by parasites that can spread between humans and other animals. Though it is known that most primate parasites can affect multiple hosts and that many are zoonotic, comparative studies across different contexts for animal-human interactions are scarce. We conducted a multi-parasite screening targeting the detection of zoonotic infections in wild-caught monkeys in nine Peruvian cities across three contexts: captivity (zoos and rescue centers, n = 187); pet (households, n = 69); and trade (trafficked or recently confiscated, n = 132). We detected 32 parasite taxa including mycobacteria, simian foamyvirus, bacteria, helminths, and protozoa. Monkeys in the trade context had the highest prevalence of hemoparasites (including Plasmodium malariae/brasilianum, Trypanosoma cruzi, and microfilaria) and enteric helminths and protozoa were less common in pet monkeys. However, parasite communities showed overall low variation between the three contexts. Parasite richness (PR) was best explained by host genus and the city where the animal was sampled. Squirrel (genus Saimiri) and wooly (genus Lagothrix) monkeys had the highest PR, which was ~2.2 times the PR found in tufted capuchins (genus Sapajus) and tamarins (genus Saguinus/Leontocebus) in a multivariable model adjusted for context, sex, and age. Our findings illustrate that the threats of wildlife trafficking to One Health encompass exposure to multiple zoonotic parasites well-known to cause disease in humans, monkeys, and other species. We demonstrate these threats continue beyond the markets where wildlife is initially sold; monkeys trafficked for the pet market remain a reservoir for and contribute to the translocation of zoonotic parasites to households and other captive facilities where contact with humans is frequent. Our results have practical applications for the healthcare of rescued monkeys and call for urgent action against wildlife trafficking and ownership of monkeys as pets., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Mendoza et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Paranasal sinuses of living apes and humans grow with positive allometry, suggesting a novel mechanism for bone enlargement. Here, we examine the paranasal sinuses of the owl monkey (Aotus spp.) and a tamarin (Saguinus midas) across postnatal development. The prediction that paranasal sinuses grow disproportionately faster than the main nasal chamber is tested. We used diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography and histology to study sinuses in eight Aotus and three tamarins ranging from newborn to adult ages. Sinuses were segmented at the mucosa-air cavity interface and measured in volume. All sinuses were lined by a ciliated respiratory epithelium, except for the ethmoid air cells in Aotus, which are lined in part by olfactory epithelium. An age comparison indicates that only the maxillary sinus and ethmoid air cells are present in newborns, and two additional sinuses (invading the orbitosphenoid and the frontal bone), do not appear until late infancy or later. Comparing newborns and adults, the main nasal airway is 10 times larger in the adult Aotus and ~ 6.5 times larger in adult Saguinus. In contrast, the maxillary sinus far exceeds this magnitude of difference: 24 times larger in the adult Aotus and 46 times larger in adult Saguinus. The frontal sinuses add significantly to total paranasal space volume in both species, but this growth is likely delayed until juvenile age. Results suggest ethmoid air cells expand the least. These results support our prediction that most paranasal sinuses have a distinctly higher growth rate compared to the main nasal chamber., (© 2023 American Association for Anatomy.)

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The gross anatomy of the palmaris longus muscle in 12 specimens of Saguinus leucopus was studied by dissection. This muscle was constant and unipennate, originated in the medial epicondyle of the humerus; inserted onto flexor retinaculum and palmar aponeurosis; and innerved by the median nerve, and in one case, together with the ulnar nerve. This is the first report of double innervation for this muscle in primates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of animal sound signals can be useful in assisting conservation strategies. Understanding the vocal repertoires of endangered species and the behavioral contexts in which they are given is relevant for monitoring protocols, such as those based on automated sound recordings. The pied tamarin ( Saguinus bicolor) is at risk of extinction because of deforestation and urban growth in its restricted geographic range. Between 2012 and 2015 we studied the vocal repertoire of the species and the contexts in which different signals are emitted. We made focal recordings of eight free-living groups, two rescued individuals, and one temporarily captive group of pied tamarins in Manaus, central Brazilian Amazonia. From the 766 sounds analyzed we identified 12 distinct signals within the range of 2-11 kHz. Most signals were emitted during resting or locomotion. Less frequently emitted signals were associated with intergroup agonistic interactions, foraging, and infant-exclusive vocalizations. These results increased the known vocal repertoire of the pied tamarin providing more reliable baseline data for monitoring the species by means of automated or focal sound recordings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We observed a zoo-housed group of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) before and after a bout of severe targeted aggression directed towards two of its members. The aggression was so severe and repeated that the zoo personnel was forced to remove the two victims and the main aggressor. In the tense period that preceded removal, the tamarins showed increased aggression, a steeper and linear dominance hierarchy, and reduced post-conflict reconciliation compared to the period following removal. In contrast, affiliative interactions such as grooming and peaceful food transfers did not differ in the two periods of observations. Patterns of reciprocity also remained stable. These results highlight the flexibility of tamarin social relationships and provide useful information for managing captive colonies and improving animal welfare., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Japan Monkey Centre.)

Cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) are a critically endangered species found only in Colombia. Their survival is threatened by extensive habitat destruction and the illegal pet trade. Because many people in Colombia have a low level of awareness of cotton-top tamarins and even less understanding of the impacts that the illegal pet trade has on the species and its long-term survival, Proyecto Tití has developed a series of programs for children in rural elementary schools that introduce children to cotton-top tamarins. This study examines Proyecto Titi's efforts to reduce the desire to have a cotton-top tamarin as a pet with outcomes focused specifically on (1) creating an emotional connection between people and cotton-top tamarins, (2) identifying the feelings and understanding the challenges that cotton-top tamarin face when they are kept as pets, and (3) empowering students to make positive choices to help cotton-top tamarins. Both TITI KIDS and TITIRITIANDO programs helped students to (1) increase their knowledge of cotton-top tamarins, (2) understand the damage that the pet trade has on individual animals and the long-term survival of cotton-top tamarins and (3) provide practical actions that they can engage in to protect cotton-top tamarins for the future. Our hope is that students from our programs become advocates for conservation in their communities and assist in the long-term conservation activities to protect cotton-top tamarins in Colombia., (© 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Among primates, the Neotropical Callitrichid monkeys (tamarins and marmosets) exhibit a particular ability to adapt to disturbed and urbanized environments. However, little is known about physiological and health status in contrasting ecological contexts. An example of adaptation to urban environments is the white-footed tamarin ( Saguinus leucopus), an endangered species endemic to the central Andes in North West Colombia. This species was used as a model to contrast physical condition, physiological parameters and the parasite community of wild populations in rural and urban settings. Overall, the tamarins seemed to be in good body condition in both environments; however, urban tamarins exhibited overweight, elevated body mass, and higher cholesterol levels, while rural tamarins showed larger diversity and prevalence of parasites. Variation in several hematological parameters associated with altitude was also observed. Our data provide preliminary evidence of differential physiological responses to urban and rural environments in tamarins. These results may be attributed to nutritional factors, physical activity, and specific parasite-host ecological interactions in these two environments. Also, abundance and diversity of the parasite community in urban environments may be potentially constrained by habitat fragmentation and relatively fewer reservoirs. Finally, significant physiological and ecological disparities between white-footed tamarins occurring in urban and rural habitats as well as physiological response to hypoxia at higher altitudes were evidenced here. This study provides important preliminary information that will be useful to determine the ability of New World primate populations to cope with urban development and rapidly changing environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twelve generic names have been ascribed to the New World tamarins but all are currently placed in just one: Saguinus Hoffmannsegg, 1807. Based on geographical distributions, morphology, and pelage patterns and coloration, they have been divided into six species groups: (1) nigricollis, (2) mystax, (3) midas, (4) inustus, (5) bicolor and (6) oedipus. Molecular phylogenetic studies have validated five of these groups; each are distinct clades. Saguinus inustus is embedded in the mystax group. Genetic studies show that tamarins are sister to all other callitrichids, diverging 15−13 Ma. The small-bodied nigricollis group diverged from the remaining, larger tamarins 11−8 Ma, and the mystax group diverged 7−6 Ma; these radiations are older than those of the marmosets ( Callithrix, Cebuella, Mico), which began to diversify 6−5 Ma. The oedipus group diverged from the midas and bicolor groups 5−4 Ma. We review recent taxonomic changes and summarize the history of the generic names. Taking into account the Late Miocene divergence time (11−8 Ma) between the large- and small-bodied tamarin lineages, the small size of the nigricollis group species when compared with other tamarins, and the sympatry of the nigricollis group species with the larger mystax group species, we argue that the nigricollis group be recognized as a distinct genus: Leontocebus Wagner, 1839. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prosthenorchis sp. is a common acanthocephalan in primates of the genus Saguinus, which produces gastrointestinal lesions associated with chronic diarrhea and low body condition. The diagnosis is incidental and surgical removal of the parasite is necessary as a treatment. The aim of this study was to describe the clinical presentation, diagnosis and therapeutic management of a Saguinus leucopus with nodules and ileal intussusception caused by Prosthenorchis sp. During the clinical examination, the patient was depressed, prostrate, hypothermic, and presenting low body condition, with generalized skin desquamation, alopecia in the distal third of the tail, and chipped canine teeth. Abdominal palpation evidenced nodules in groins. The blood count presented leukopenia, lymphopenia, and neutropenia; low hemoglobin; hypochromia and mild polychromatophilia. Prostenorchis sp. eggs and strongyles were found in stool. The patient was admitted to surgery, through which ileal intussusception was detected; for this reason, an enterotomy was performed followed by end-to-side enteroenterostomy of the ileum to the antimesenteric border of the caecum. Despite the antibiotic and analgesic treatment, the patient did not improve, it went into cardiac arrest and died. The histopathologic diagnosis was fibrinous peritonitis. This was a typical clinical history of Prosthenorchis sp., in which the patient's prognosis was bad and the outcome was not favorable, due both to parasitism and nutritional deficiencies present. Surgery is the treatment of choice; however, it is necessary to consider that patients with advanced clinical symptoms have a poor prognosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The systematics of the subfamily Callitrichinae (Platyrrhini, Primates), a group of small monkeys from South America and Panama, remains an area of considerable discussion despite many investigations, there being continuing controversy over subgeneric taxonomic classifications based on morphological characters. The purpose of our research was to help elucidate the phylogenetic relationships within the monkey genus Saguinus (Callitrichinae) using a molecular approach to discover whether or not the two different sections containing hairy-faced and bare-faced species are monophyletic, whether Saguinus midas midas and Saguinus bicolor are more closely related than are S. midas midas and Saguinus midas niger, and if Saguinus fuscicollis melanoleucus and Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli really are different species. We sequenced the 957 bp ND1 mitochondrial gene of 21 Saguinus monkeys (belonging to six species and nine morphotypes) and one Cebus monkey (the outgroup) and constructed phylogenetic trees using maximum parsimony, neighbor joining, and maximum likelihood methods. The phylogenetic trees obtained divided the genus Saguinus into two groups, one containing the small-bodied species S. fuscicollis and the other, the large-bodied species S. mystax, S. leucopus, S. oedipus, S. midas, S. bicolor. The most derived taxa, S. midas and S. bicolor, grouped together, while S. fuscicollis melanoleucus and S. f. weddelli showed divergence values that did not support the division of these morphotypes into subspecies. On the other hand, S. midas individuals showed divergence compatible with the existence of three subspecies, two of them with the same morphotype as the subspecies S. midas niger. The results of our study suggest that there is at least one Saguinus subspecies that has not yet been described and that the conservation status of Saguinus species and subspecies should be carefully revised using modern molecular approaches.

The luteal-placental shift is an important milestone of mammalian pregnancy signifying when endocrine control of pregnancy shifts from the corpus luteum of the ovary to the placenta. The corpus luteum is maintained by chorionic gonadotropin (CG). Upon sufficient placental maturation, CG production wanes, the corpus luteum involutes, and control is shifted to the placenta, one consequence of which is a midgestational rise in glucocorticoid production, especially cortisol and cortisone, by both mother and fetus. Glucocorticoids are involved in initiating parturition, prenatal programming of offspring phenotype, and maturing fetal organs. Limited evidence from human pregnancy suggests that the timing of this shift is delayed in twin pregnancies, but little is known about the timing of the luteal-placental shift in litter-bearing monkeys from the primate family Callitrichidae. Here we provide evidence from cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) and common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) of longer duration of elevated CG associated with multiple infant births compared to single births. Urinary profiles from cotton-top tamarins demonstrate that the decline of the extended elevation of CG precedes the onset of the midpregnancy sustained rise in glucocorticoids; this shift occurs later with an increase from one to two fetuses carried to term. In the common marmoset, the onset of the sustained rise of glucocorticoids in maternal urine is also delayed with an increase in infant number. Total urinary glucocorticoid levels during the last half of gestation increase monthly but do not differ by infant number. The significant delay in the luteal-placental shift suggests a longer period of placental maturation is needed to support a greater number of fetuses., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The medial brachial cutaneous nerve (MBC) originates from the medial cord of the brachial plexus and innervates the skin sensory in the medial posterior surface of the upper arm. Considering previous reports of the primate brachial plexus, the MBC appeared to be the sole branch in the brachial plexus that only some primates possess. However, the detailed descriptions and records regarding the morphology of the MBC and related nerves, their origins and distributions (dermatomes) in particular, were frequently lacked in the previous reports, and it remains unclear why the difference in the MBC appearance exists among primates. In this study, the brachial plexus and its branches were first re-evaluated and certainly identified in several primates, humans, chimpanzee, macaque monkey, lutung, tamarin, squirrel monkey, and spider monkey. The MBC was identified in humans, chimpanzee, spider monkey, and squirrel monkey. In the other species, the intercostobrachial nerve (ICB) originating from some of 1st to 3rd intercostal nerves developed and distributed instead of the MBC. According to the kinesiological and behavioral studies, the former species possessing MBC show high shoulder joint mobility associated with their locomotive patterns. We speculate that the MBC corresponds to transformed ICB; specifically, where it originates presumably transfers from the 1st and/or 2nd intercostal nerves to the brachial plexus, which allows it to reach the upper arm by coursing the shortest distance even if the forelimb is raised high. Therefore, MBC may embody phylogenetic morphogenesis of the nerve associated with the locomotive evolution and adaptation in primate forelimb., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Japan Monkey Centre.)

Although the Amazon has the greatest diversity of primates, there are still taxonomic uncertainties for many taxa, such as the species of the Saguinus mystax group. The most geographically broadly distributed and phenotypically diverse species in this group is S . mystax , and its phenotypic diversity has been recognized as three subspecies- S . mystax mystax , S . mystax pileatus and S . mystax pluto -with non-overlapping geographic distributions. In this sense, we carried out an extensive field survey in their distribution areas and used a framework of taxonomic hypothesis testing of genomic data combined with an integrative taxonomic decision-making framework to carry out a taxonomic revision of S. mystax . Our tests supported the existence of three lineages/species. The first species corresponds to Saguinus mystax mystax from the left bank of the Juruá River, which was raised to the species level, and we also discovered and described animals from the Juruá-Tefé interfluve previously attributed to S . mystax mystax as a new species. The subspecies S . m . pileatus and S . m . pluto are recognized as a single species, under a new nomenclatural combination. However, given their phenotypic distinction and allopatric distribution, they potentially are a manifestation of an early stage of speciation, and therefore we maintain their subspecific designations., Competing Interests: Tomas Hrbek is an Academic Editor for PeerJ., (© 2023 Lopes et al.)

Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai Hershkovitz, , was described from a painting by Eládio da Cruz Lima in his book Mammals of Amazonia, Vol. 1, Primates (1945). The painting was of four saddle-back tamarins from the upper Rio Purus, one of them distinct and the inspiration for Hershkovitz to describe it as a new subspecies. Its exact provenance was unknown, however, and the specimen was lost. Surveys in the Purus National Forest in 2011 resulted in sightings of this tamarin along the north bank of the Rio Inauini, a left-bank tributary of the middle Purus, and also on the left bank of the Purus, north and south of the Rio Inauini. It is possible that it extends north as far as the Rio Pauini, and that S. f. primitivus Hershkovitz, , occurs north of the Pauini as far the Rio Tapauá, both also left-bank tributaries of the Purus. Morphometric and molecular genetic analyses and the coloration of the pelage indicate that this tamarin differs from its neighbors sufficiently to be considered a full species. In his doctoral dissertation [2010, Taxonomy, Phylogeny and Distribution of Tamarins (Genus Saguinus Hoffmannsegg, 1807) Georg-August Universität, Göttingen], C. Matauschek found that saddle-back and black-mantle tamarins diverged from the tamarin lineage around 9.2 million years ago; time enough to warrant their classification in a distinct genus. Leontocebus Wagner, 1840, is the first name available. In this article we re-describe Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin. We propose a neotype with a precise locality, and make it a full species in the genus Leontocebus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saguinus niger is a primate of the family Callitrichidae, with a geographical distribution limited to northern Brazil, Guyanas, Suriname and Venezuela, where it inhabits rainforests along the coast. Three adult females from the Paragominas Bauxite Mine - PA were used, donated to the Laboratory of Animal Morphology Research ( LAMR) of the Federal Rural University of Amazonia. These animals had died of natural causes. The arterial system was filled with latex, and the animals were fixed in 10% formalin. Afterwards, the abdominal aorta and its collateral branches were dissected. The arrangement of the abdominal aorta branches in this species showed a similar arrangement as domestic animals but differing in the formation of the coeliac trunk. The coeliac trunk originates from the abdominal aorta, and from this trunk, we found the hepatic, left gastric and splenic arteries, where the origin of these vessels was variable. These arteries originate from the coliac trunk or a common trunk originating from the coeliac trunk, a characteristic not described in other species. The other branches of the abdominal aorta from S. niger did not show great differences in origin when compared to other species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Multiloci dataset recovered four monophyletic clades of Tamarins. • Genus Leontocebus and mystax , oedipus and midas + bicolor groups were recovered as monophyletic. • Tamarins' diversification began around 10.5 Mya, followed by two main cladogenetic events at 9.3 and 7.2 Mya. • Molecular evidence combined with morphology and ecology support a new taxonomic classification for the Tamarins. • We proposed to elevate to the genus level three main clades of Saguinus. Traditionally, Saguinus has been organized into six taxonomic groups: bicolor, inustus, midas, mystax, nigricollis, and oedipus. After recent revisions, taxonomic reclassifications were proposed, including (1) the recognition of Leontocebus as a new genus, and (2) the subdivision of Saguinus into three subgenera. Nonetheless, the contradictory nature of these results reinforces the inconsistency concerning the monophyletic status of tamarins and its interspecific phylogeny. Therefore, in this study, we carried out phylogenetic inferences of Saguinus based on 44 molecular markers, of which 37 were from nuclear DNA and seven from mitochondrial DNA. A final dataset of 24,202 base pairs (bp) was obtained from 60 specimens of all recognized species of Saguinus and, also representatives of two main lineages of Leontocebus. Phylogenetic hypothesis was obtained from Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) methods. We also construct a Species Tree and a fossil-calibrated multi-locus phylogeny to estimate the time of divergence of Tamarins. Our phylogenetic results validated Leontocebus, or nigricollis group, as monophyletic, and recovered additionally three main clades within Saguinus. Same topology was obtained by the Species Tree. These clades correspond to (1) inustus + mystax groups, (2) oedipus group and (3) bicolor + midas group. Our results show support for a 10.5-million-year-old split between Leontocebus and the remaining Saguinus, followed by two other cladogenetic events, around 9.3 and 7.2 mya, which lead to the rise of the main clades of Saguinus. These phylogenetic data, in concert with the consistent morphological, ecological behavior and biogeographic evidence suggest a new classification for the Amazonian and trans -Andean tamarins. Therefore, we support the validation of Leontocebus as genus and recommend the split of Saguinus into three genera: (1) Tamarinus (inustus and mystax groups), (2) Oedipomidas (oedipus group), and (3) Saguinus (bicolor and midas groups). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key message: The Neotropical tree Parkia panurensis shows a spatial genetic structure from the seed to the adult stage that is most likely the outcome of the seed dispersal provided by primates. Abstract: Seed dispersal and pollination determine the gene flow within plant populations. In addition, seed dispersal creates the template for subsequent stages of plant recruitment. Therefore, the question arises whether and how seed dispersal affects the spatial genetic structure (SGS) of plant populations. In this study, we used microsatellites to analyse the SGS of the Neotropical tree Parkia panurensis (Fabaceae). This plant species is a major food resource for primates and its seeds are mainly dispersed by primates. Seeds were collected during behavioural observations of a tamarin mixed-species troop in north-eastern Peru. Additionally, leaf samples of juveniles and of adults trees of this species were collected throughout the home range of the tamarin troop. A significant SGS for embryos (located within the dispersed seeds) and for non-reproductive plants are found up to a distance of 300 m. This matches the distance within which most seeds are dispersed. In the adult stage, the scale of a significant SGS is reduced to 100 m. While we cannot explain this scale reduction, our study provides the first evidence that primate seed dispersal does influence the SGS of a tropical tree species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saguinus leucopus is a neotropical primate, endemic and monotypic of Colombia (South America), with few studies of its anatomy, whose morphology radius this key element of this quadruped locomotion arboreal animal remains unknown. This study describes the gross functional anatomy of the radius bone of white-footed tamarin (Saguinus leucopus). The study was based on eight specimens fixed with 10% formalin and extracted their radius them, describing the main features of the bony prominences, such as muscle and ligaments attachments and neurovascular pipes. The radius of Saguinus leucopus bony presents some prominences for muscles and ligaments attachments, in addition to the synovial cartilage regions to other parts of the forelimb. The various anatomical contours of the radius of Saguinus leucopus exhibit characteristics typical particular motor functions adapted to the environment of an arboreal quadruped position. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies of spatial memory in wild nonhuman primates indicate that foragers may rely on a combination of navigational strategies to locate nearby and distant feeding sites. When traveling in large-scale space, tamarins are reported to encode spatial information in the form of a route-based map. However, little is known concerning how wild tamarins navigate in small-scale space (between feeding sites located at a distance of ≤60 m). Therefore, we collected data on range use, diet, and the angle and distance traveled to visit sequential feeding sites in the same group of habituated Bolivian saddleback tamarins ( Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli) in 2009 and 2011. For 7-8 hr a day for 54 observation days, we recorded the location of the study group at 10 min intervals using a GPS unit. We then used GIS software to map and analyze the monkeys' movements and travel paths taken between feeding sites. Our results indicate that in small-scale space the tamarins relied on multiple spatial strategies. In 31% of cases travel was route-based. In the remaining 69% of cases, however, the tamarins appeared to attend to the spatial positions of one or more near-to-site landmarks to relocate feeding sites. In doing so they approached the same feeding site from a mean of 4.5 different directions, frequently utilized different arboreal pathways, and traveled approximately 30% longer than then the straight-line distance. In addition, the monkeys' use of non-direct travel paths allowed them to monitor insect and fruit availability in areas within close proximity of currently used food patches. We conclude that the use of an integrated spatial strategy (route-based travel and attention to near-to-goal landmarks) provides tamarins with the opportunity to relocate productive feeding sites as well as monitor the availability of nearby resources in small-scale space. Am. J. Primatol. Am. J. Primatol. 76:447-459, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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