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The present study explored the effects of gender stereotype threat and conceptions of ability on motor learning and working memory in novice female learners. Sixty participants (M[subscript age] = 21.92 years, SD[subscript age] = 1.74) were randomly assigned into a gender stereotype threat and a control group (neutral; without stereotype threat). Each group was, in turn, randomly divided into two subgroups: inherent ability and acquired skill. The tasks assigned to the participants included soccer dribbling and the n-back test. In the pretest, the individuals only performed one dribbling trial, whereas in the practice phase, the individuals performed 12 blocks of five trials based on their respective test conditions. During retention and transfer under pressure (48 hr after practice for both tests), the participants carried out one block of five trials. The participants also completed the n-back test in the pretest, posttest, and retention phases. In both motor performance and learning, the findings suggested that both gender stereotype threat and inherent ability variables can negatively influence the soccer dribbling skill (p < 0.05). However, regarding working memory, the results could not show any significant difference between the groups (p > 0.05). How these variables affect or do not affect motor learning as well as working memory and how the results are applied in the motor domain are discussed.

Predominantly, childhood provides a window of opportunity for the promotion and development of social maturation and fundamental movement skills. The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of active play on the motor proficiency and social maturity of children. Thirty participants (age range: seven to nine years old) were randomly assigned to either an active play (n = 15) or a control (n = 15) groups. The intervention was 60 min/day, three days/week for four weeks for the active play group, while the control group did not participate in a specific training programme. All outcome variables (motor proficiency and social maturity) were measured twice (before and after the intervention). The significant results revealed that at the end of the intervention, the active play group showed improvement regarding outcome variables and had higher social maturity and motor proficiency, compared to the control group (p < 0.0001).

The present study aims to examine the effects of Brain Gym exercise on development of fundamental motor and social skills. Eighty-four children (Mage: 9.55±1.09 years) were selected and randomly assigned to two groups of 42: the Brain Gym and the control group. Participants in the Brain Gym group attended sixteen training sessions. The gross motor skills were measured using the test of gross motor development -- 3rd edition (Ulrich, Test of gross motor development (3rd ed.). Austin: Pro-Ed.http://www.kines.umich.edu/tgmd3, 2016; TGMD-3) while social skills were assessed through the Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY; Matson, J. L., Rotatori, A. F., & Helsel, W. J., Development of a rating scale to measure social skills in children: The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY). "Behaviour Research and Therapy," 21(4),335-340,1983). The results showed that the Brain Gym group outperformed the control group in posttest and follow-up stages in terms of all variables.

Standing long jump is known as one of the important skills in the success of athletes in most sports. In addition, one of the most effective factors that can affect standing long jump distance and kinematics is the focus of attention used by the athlete. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention instructions on standing long jump performance and kinematics. The participants were 30 novices (all males; mean age = 21.70 ± 2.21 years; mean height = 175.73 ± 6.09 cm; and mean weight = 73.76 ± 11.77 kg) who performed 12 standing long jumps in four focus of attention conditions. Internal focus, external focus, holistic focus, and control conditions were implemented in a counterbalanced order. Jump distance and maximum knee flexion angle before take-off were recorded in all trials. The results showed that in relation to the standing long jump performance, the distance was similar in external and holistic focus conditions, and both were superior to internal or control conditions. There was no difference between control and internal focus of attention conditions. The results related to movement kinematics, however, did not report a difference between the maximum flexion angles before take-off. This study replicates the benefits of external and holistic focus instructions for jump distance, but this difference was not a product of different maximum knee flexion angles. It is suggested that coaches implement external and/or holistic focus cues to maximize athlete performance in jumping tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims to examine the effects of two dual-task training methods (motor-motor and cognitive-motor) as well as a single task method on static and dynamic balance and also on the working memory in children. Forty-five children (all male; mean age 8.82 ± 0.83 years) were selected and randomly assigned into three experimental groups. In the pretest, posttest, and retention stages, the participants took static, and dynamic balance tests, as well as an n-back task. In the training stage, the participants practiced selected balance training tasks under dual-task motor-motor and motor-cognitive conditions as well as a single task over a period of four weeks at two sessions per week. The results of the paired samples t-test indicated that children in all groups improved their balance performance and working memory (p ≤ .05). The results of ANCOVA showed that the balance training group under motor-motor dual-task conditions outperformed the other two groups in terms of the dynamic balance scores (p ≤ .05). An improved performance was also observed for the cognitive-motor dual-task conditions compared to the single-task group (p ≤ .01). In terms of static balance and working memory, both dual-task groups, regardless of the types of their tasks, outperformed the single task group (p ≤ .05).

Motivation is one of the key factors affecting the achievement of a specific task. Therefore, the present research aims to identify and establish the existing relationships between sport motivation, the anxiety-related disorder, and the own body perception, divided into (a) developing an explanatory model of the motivational climate towards sport and its relationship with anxiety and physical self-concept and (b) contrasting the structural model through a multigroup analysis according to sex. A descriptive, nonexperimental (ex post facto), and cross-sectional study of young university students was carried out. The Perceived Motivational Climate Questionnaire for Sport (PMCSQ-2), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and the Self-Concept Form 5 (AF-5) were used for data collection. The data reveal that males show higher scores in all the variables that make up the ego climate and in the physical self-concept, while females show higher scores in the variables that make up the task climate and higher levels of anxiety., Author(s): Eduardo Melguizo-Ibáñez [1]; Gabriel González-Valero [1]; Georgian Badicu (corresponding author) [2]; Esmaeel Saemi [3]; Pilar Puertas-Molero [1] 1. Introduction One of the issues of greatest concern to teachers involved [...]

An important application for training instructions is found in directing one's attentional focus. This direction can occur in different internal, external, or holistic forms. However, comparison between these three forms of instructions is a relatively recent development rarely reported at different skill levels or various sports including karate. Therefore, the present study attempts to investigate the effects of three forms of instructions on standing long jump performance in skilled and novice karatekas. The participants were 60 skilled and novice karatekas (all females; mean age: 21.32 ± 1.65) who completed 12 standing long jump trials under different focus conditions (3 trials for each condition: internal, external, holistic and control condition) in a counterbalanced order. Our findings suggested significant main effects, indicating that skilled karatekas outperformed the novices. The findings also showed that regardless of skill levels, the participants exhibited similar performance under external and holistic focus conditions while performance in both of these conditions was superior compared to performance under internal focus and control conditions. No difference was observed between the control and internal focus conditions. It seems that skilled and novice karatekas may benefit from holistic and external focus of attention instructions which enhance their motor performance. Thus, it is recommended that coaches should incorporate these two types of attentional focus instructions into their training sessions. Highlights: Both external as well as holistic focus of attention are similar and improve standing long jump performance.Both skilled and novice karatekas benefit from external as well as holistic focus of attention.Performance under an Internal focus of attention is similar to control conditions and does not benefit standing long jump performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of overweight stereotype threat on children’s motor learning. Twenty-four children (Mage = 9.25 ± 0.53 years) were conveniently selected and randomly assigned into two groups of stereotype threat (with emphasis on individual characteristics, namely, overweight) and control group. The task consisted of maintaining the balance on the stabilometer during 30-second trials. One trial in the pre-test, 10 trials in the acquisition phase and 5 trials in the retention test were run. The findings revealed lower motor learning among the overweight stereotype group compared to the control group. Therefore, it is suggested that in similar situations, coaches can reduce stereotype threat emphasizing on the ineffectiveness of individual characteristics, i.e., overweight on motor performance of children thereby prevent performance and learning disruptions.

External focus (attention directed to an intended effect) has been shown to improve motor performance compared to internal focus (attention directed to body movements). Recently, holistic attention (attention directed to the overall feeling) has been discussed as an effective alternative. We hypothesized that a less specific cue (e.g. holistic attention) may be more effective than an external focus in experienced individuals. Therefore, the present study examined the effect of external focus, internal focus, and holistic attention on 14 experienced children-athletes (Mage, 14.35 ± 1.98 years; Mheight, 171.28 ± 9.53 cm; Mweight, 58.28 ± 10.28 kg) and 14 novice children (Mage, 14.21 ± 1.92 years; Mheight, 170.92 ± 12.40 cm; Mweight, 62.14 ± 15.62 kg). Participants completed a 16-meter front crawl swimming task with assigned instructions for three trials per condition. The results showed main effects of skill level (p < 0.001), condition (p = 0.006), and the skill level/condition interaction (p = 0.003). Post hoc tests revealed that external focus was superior to internal focus (p < 0.001), with no difference between holistic attention and internal focus (p = 0.158) or holistic attention and external focus (p = 0.05) in the experienced athletes, while none of the conditions were different in novices. The benefits of attentional focus may be influenced by the level of experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. Researchers have shown that the learners achieve higher levels of learning when they learn with the aim and expectation of teaching their content to others. Recently some motor behavior researchers have also examined this learning method, and have indicated that expecting to teach others improves motor learning in adults. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of expecting to teach others on the learning of a golf-putting task in children. Material and Methods. Participants consisted of 24 children (all males; Mage = 9.58; SD = 0.50 years) who were randomly assigned into two experimental groups. Participants in the group expecting to teach others were instructed as follows: "given that you have to teach golf putting to some people the day after the acquisition phase, you have the opportunity to practice this skill carefully today and tomorrow". Participants in the group expecting to be tested received the following instructions; "you have the opportunity to practice this skill carefully today and tomorrow expecting to be tested in this skill". Results. The results showed that the children in the group expecting to teach others had better accuracy scores relative to children in the group expecting to be tested in the retention phase (p = 0.05). Conclusions. The findings of this study suggest that promoting the expectation to teach others would improve motor learning in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present study was to investigate if children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) would show enhanced motor skill learning with instructions to adopt an external focus of attention (i.e. on the movement effect) rather than an internal focus (i.e. on the movements themselves). The task involved throwing tennis balls with the dominant arm at a circular target that was placed on the floor at a distance of three meters. Twenty children with ADHD, ranging in age from 8 to 11 years, were randomly assigned to either an external or internal focus group. Participants performed 180 practice trials with focus instructions and reminders before each block of 30 trials. Learning was assessed 48 hours after practice. The external focus group demonstrated more effective learning than the internal focus group. This finding has implications for applied settings that involve sports or physical activity with children who have ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few studies have explored the contextual interference effect with children. The findings from these investigations have produced inconsistent results. The purpose of this study was to investigate further how the contextual interference effect influenced children learning a fundamental motor skill in a physical education class. Elementary students (N=36) practiced overarm throwing following traditional blocked or random scheduling. They were compared to a third group of participants practicing the same tasks following a schedule with systematic increases in contextual interference. Analysis revealed that all three groups improved during practice. Post-test results revealed performance differences in favor of the group that practiced with systematic increases in contextual interference. The findings reported here extend the results of previous studies by demonstrating that children can learn a motor skill by practicing with systematic increases in contextual interference. Theoretical considerations are discussed, as well as the relevance of the findings for practitioners and avenues for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. The increase in the job involvement (JI) of employees has always been significant to all employers, who have thus tried to identify factors influencing the JI of the working population. Aim of Study. The prime objective of the study was to investigate the relationship between the quality of working life (QWL) and job involvement (JI) of physical education teachers from Ahvaz, Iran. Material and Methods. The statistical population consisted of all physical education teachers from Ahvaz, Iran in 2011 (N = 144). The whole population was selected as the study sample. The data were collected using a questionnaire on demographic characteristics, Walton's standard criteria of quality of working life, and the Edwards & Kilpatrick job involvement questionnaire. The reliability of the questionnaires was confirmed by Cronbach's alpha (QWL = 0.89, JI = 0.73). Descriptive and inferential statistics (Pearson's correlation, multiple regression analysis, t- test, and one-way analysis of variance) were applied (α = 0.05). Results. Results demonstrated moderate levels of QWL and JI amongst physical education teachers. The study also found a significant relationship between the QWL and JI of PE teachers. Furthermore, according to the results of multiple regressions, significant multiple relationships were found between the QWL and JI criteria. In addition, significant differences were also observed between the QWL of teachers of different gender, academic degree, and work experience, as well as the JI of teachers in different age groups. Conclusions. In order to increase the JI of physical education teachers it is important that the Iranian educational authorities and executives endeavor to ensure efficient organization of school physical education courses in standard conditions and with maximum facilities, through research and efficient planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background and purpose Material and Methods Results Conclusion Understanding the issues of the elderly or providing opportunities for a more fruitful ageing are some of the challenges that the officials and researchers in the area grapple with. The current study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a series of brain gym exercises on elderly males’ eye-hand coordination.Thirty old males (60–80 years old) were selected using the convenience sampling technique and were divided equally into an experimental and a control group. After performing baseline measurements, the experimental group performed the brain gym exercises for 16 sessions; the sessions were held twice in week, and each session lasted for 30 min. The touch test disc was applied to assess the participants’ eye-hand coordination.The results of mixed-ANOVA indicated a significant difference between the experimental and control groups (p < 0.05) and in favour of experimental group.The results were quite promising and have practical implications for the exercise and routine programs of rehabilitation centres and nursing homes. However, the limited research studies conducted in the area make use recommend conducting more studies using larger samples of both genders and exploiting other tasks of eye-hand coordination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A performer's focus of attention has been shown to influence motor performance and learning in a variety of motor skills. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of an external and internal focus of attention on discus throwing. Participants (N=20; mean age: 22 years, SD: 1.58) were recruited from an undergraduate male student population that had limited experience with the task. Using a within-participants design, all participants completed five maximum effort trials under each attentional focus condition (external and internal). The results of a repeated-measures ANCOVA revealed that participants had a significantly more effective performance in external focus of attention condition compared with the internal attentional focus. These findings are in line with the previous studies showing enhanced motor performance as a result of using external versus internal focus of attention. Therefore, it is suggested that coaches and practitioners give instructions that promote an external focus of attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between mental skills and anxiety direction in sport is a vital topic of sport psychology research, which has been explored in depth over the last two decades. The present study was aimed to examine the relationship between mental skills and anxiety interpretation in female volleyball players. One hundred and twenty female volleyball players were surveyed using modified CSAI-2 and OMSAT-3 inventories. The results revealed that several subscales of mental skills had a significant impact on the success of volleyball players in regard to interpretation of anxiety and self-confidence as facilitative to their performance. Also, participants perceived anxiety intensity and self-confidence differently from anxiety direction and self-confidence. The study findings show that mental skills are important to reinforcement of self confidence of volleyball players. The conclusion is that coaches and sports psychologists should seriously consider athletes' mental skills in preparation of volleyball players before competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate if moderately skilled participants practicing with systematic increases in contextual interference (CI) for multiple days would perform better than equally skilled participants who practiced with traditional blocked and random scheduling. Participants (N=45) practiced three different basketball related passes (two hand chest, two hand overhead, single arm) using either a blocked, random, or increasing-CI practice schedule. All participants practiced 81 trials per day for five consecutive days, totaling 405 practice trials. Participants completed an immediate retention test, and a 48 hr delayed retention test. The results of the immediate and delayed retention test showed that practicing with gradual increases in CI resulted in superior performance compared to traditional blocked and random scheduling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stereotype threat, a key concept in social psychology, occurs when individuals fear they may confirm negative stereotypes about their social group (Steele, 1997). This phenomenon can significantly impair motor learning, particularly in children. Given the robust nature of stereotype threat, research it is now focused on mitigating these negative effects. According to the explicit monitoring hypothesis, it is suggested that distracting individual's attention can lead to an annihilation of stereotype threat effects, however, to date, this hypothesis has not been examined in children. The present study examined the effect of stereotype threat in a dual task condition on children's motor learning. One hundred and fifty girls (mean age = 10.96 ± .80 years) were randomly assigned into 3 groups; 1- explicit gender stereotype threat; 2- explicit gender stereotype threat + dual task; 3- control. The task consisted of a soccer-kicking task in which the participants had to score the most points by kicking the soccer ball towards the goals on the wall. This study included three phases; 1- pretest (10 trials); 2- practice phase (5 blocks of 10 trials); 3- retention test (10 trials). During the practice phase, the results indicated that participants in the control condition performed better (M = 1.46, SD = .19) than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (M = 1.25, SD = .16, p < .001), and, than participants in the gender stereotype threat + dual task paradigm condition (M = .92, SD = .19, p < .001). However, participants in the gender stereotypes + dual task paradigm condition performed worse than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (p < .001). In addition, the results of the retention test showed that participants in the control condition performed better (M = 1.51, SD = .34) than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (M = 1.24, SD = .35, p = .001), and participants in the gender stereotype threat + dual task paradigm condition (M = 1.15, SD = .49, p < .001). In conclusion, these results do not support the potential neutralizing effect of a cognitive dual task in a stereotype threat condition in children., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)