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Remnant cholesterol (RC) and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) may contribute to the residual risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. High cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is associated with favorable traditional lipid profiles, but its relation with RC and non-HDL-C remains unclear. We analyzed cross-sectional data on 4,613 healthy men (mean age 49 years). CRF was measured using peak oxygen uptake during incremental exercise testing and categorized into quartiles. RC was estimated as total cholesterol minus HDL-C and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and elevated RC was defined as ≥38 mg/100 ml (90 percentile). Non-HDL-C was calculated as total cholesterol minus HDL-C, and high non-HLD-C was defined as ≥190 mg/100 ml. CRF was inversely associated with RC (β -0.31, 95% confidence interval [CI] -0.39 to -0.24) and non-HDL-C (β -0.34, 95% CI -0.57 to -0.11) after adjustment for several risk factors. Each metabolic equivalent increment in CRF was associated with lower odds of having elevated RC (odds ratio [OR] 0.85, 95% CI 0.77 to 0.93) and non-HDL-C (OR 0.93, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.00) in multivariable analysis. Compared with the bottom quartile, the top quartile of CRF had significantly lower odds of elevated RC (OR 0.63, 95% CI 0.45 to 0.88) and non-HDL-C (OR 0.68, 95% CI 0.51 to 0.91). In conclusion, higher CRF was independently associated with lower levels of RC and non-HDL-C and lower odds of the prevalence of elevated RC and non-HDL-C in healthy men.

Inflammation and sauna bathing are each related to the risk of all-cause mortality. The interplay between inflammation, sauna bathing and all-cause mortality is not well understood. We aimed to evaluate the separate and joint associations of inflammation (high sensitivity C-reactive protein, hsCRP) and frequency of sauna bathing (FSB) with all-cause mortality in a cohort of Caucasian men. We used the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Study cohort comprising 2575 men aged 42–61 years at baseline. Serum hsCRP was measured using an immunometric assay and sauna bathing habits were assessed by a self-administered questionnaire. High sensitivity CRP was categorized as normal and high (≤ 3 and > 3 mg/L, respectively) and FSB as low and high (defined as ≤ 2 and 3–7 sessions/week respectively). A total of 1618 deaths occurred during a median follow-up of 27.8 years. Comparing high vs normal hsCRP levels, the multivariable-adjusted HR (95% CI) for all-cause mortality was 1.27 (1.13–1.44). Comparing high vs low FSB, the multivariable-adjusted HR (95% CI) for all-cause mortality was 0.86 (0.76–0.97). Compared with normal hsCRP-low FSB, high hsCRP-low FSB was associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality 1.28 (1.12–1.47), with no evidence of an association for high hsCRP-high FSB and all-cause mortality risk 1.06 (0.81–1.40). Positive additive and multiplicative interactions were found between hsCRP and FSB in relation to mortality. In a general Finnish male population, both hsCRP and FSB are each independently associated with all-cause mortality. However, frequent sauna baths appear to offset the increased all-cause mortality risk related to high hsCRP levels.

Background: Achieving healthy vascular aging (HVA) is important for decelerating age-related cardiovascular disease risk. We evaluated the interplay between HVA, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), and subclinical atherosclerosis. Methods: We analyzed data on 3722 men who underwent cardiopulmonary exercise testing in a health examination program. HVA was defined as blood pressure 0 and ≥100 and a mean carotid artery intima-media thickness (CIMT) >75th percentile for each age group as well as >0.8 mm of CIMT. Separate and joint associations of HVA and CRF with subclinical atherosclerosis were evaluated. Results: Each 1 metabolic equivalent increment in CRF was associated with 23% higher odds for having HVA. HVA was associated with lower odds of coronary artery calcification but not CIMT. CRF modified the association between HVA and CIMT>0.8 mm (interaction: P =0.01); HVA was associated with lower odds of CIMT>0.8 mm in fit men with no significant association between HVA and CIMT>0.8 mm in unfit men. Compared with no HVA and being unfit, HVA and being fit was associated with lower odds of subclinical atherosclerosis, but there was no significant association between HVA and being unfit with subclinical atherosclerosis. Conclusions: HVA and higher CRF are each associated with a lower risk of subclinical atherosclerosis in men. Higher CRF is associated with a higher prevalence of HVA and may modify the association between HVA and subclinical atherosclerosis.

We examined the efficacy of ankle bathing versus aerobic exercise to improve vascular function in young adults who were randomized to aerobic exercise (AE) (n = 13, 40%–60% of heart rate reserve), ankle bathing (AB) (n = 15, 43 °C), or a control condition (CON) (n = 14, ankle bathing, 36 °C) for 40 min. Conduit vessel function [brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD)], carotid and femoral artery blood flow and shear rate (SR), and arterial stiffness [carotid-to-femoral pulse wave velocity (cf-PWV), augmentation index (AIx@75), β-stiffness index, and arterial compliance] were evaluated. Compared with CON, AE and AB increased FMD at 30 min and 90 min (interaction: p < 0.05); AB decreased carotid artery blood flow and SR at 30 min, while both AE and AB increased femoral artery blood flow and SR at 30 min and 90 min (interaction: p < 0.05); AE and AB decreased cf-PWV and AIx@75 at 30 min and 90 min (interaction: p < 0.05); and AE improved both carotid and femoral β-stiffness index and arterial compliance, while AB reduced β-stiffness index and increased arterial compliance only in the femoral artery (interaction: p < 0.05). These findings suggest that ankle bathing may serve as an alternative strategy for enhancing vascular function.Novelty: We observed similar improvements in conduit vessel function, femoral artery blood flow and shear rate, and arterial stiffness following ankle bathing and acute aerobic exercise in young adults. These findings have identified ankle bathing as a potential therapeutic strategy for enhancing vascular function, which may be particularly relevant for those with limited ability to engage in regular aerobic exercise.

Objective: High pulse wave velocity (PWV) and low socioeconomic status (SES) are each associated with increased risk of stroke, but clarification of the interplay between PWV, SES and the risk of stroke appears to be warranted in order to identify vulnerable populations at high risk of stroke. We conducted a prospective study that examined the independent and joint associations of PWV and SES with the risk of stroke in the general population. Methods: This study included 2666 men aged 42-61 years, who were enrolled in the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Study cohort. Estimated pulse wave velocity (ePWV), a proxy of carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity, was calculated from an equation based on age and mean blood pressure. SES was assessed using self-reported questionnaires and classified as tertiles, while ePWV was categorized as high (≥10 m/s) and low (

The purpose of this study was to examine the individual and joint associations of obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) with indices of coronary artery calcification (CAC) in 2090 middle-aged men.Obesity was defined as a body mass index (BMI) ≥25 kg/m2 and a waist circumference (WC) ≥90 cm. Cardiorespiratory fitness was operationally defined as peak oxygen uptake (V˙o2peak) directly measured using gas analysis. Participants were then divided into unfit and fit categories based on age-specific V˙o2peak percentiles. Agatston scores100 and volume and density scores75th percentile were defined as indices of CAC, signifying advanced subclinical atherosclerosis.Obese men had increased CAC Agatston, volume, and density scores, while higher CRF was associated with lower Agatston and volume scores after adjusting for potential confounders. In the joint analysis, unfit-obese men had higher CAC Agatston and CAC volume. The fit-obesity category was not associated with CAC Agatston (OR = 0.91: 95% CI, 0.66-1.25, for BMI and OR = 1.21: 95% CI, 0.86-1.70, for WC) and CAC volume (OR = 1.14: 95% CI, 0.85-1.53, for BMI and OR = 1.23: 95% CI, 0.90-1.69, for WC), which were similar to estimates for the fit-normal weight category.These findings demonstrate that while obesity is positively associated with the prevalence of moderate to severe CAC scores, CRF is inversely associated with the prevalence of moderate to severe CAC scores. Additionally, the combination of being fit and obese was not associated with CAC scores, which could potentially reinforce the fat-but-fit paradigm.

Arterial stiffness is a progressive aging process that predicts cardiovascular disease. Pulse wave velocity (PWV) has emerged as a noninvasive, valid, and reliable measure of arterial stiffness and an independent risk predictor for adverse outcomes. However, up to now, PWV measurement has mostly been used as a tool for risk prediction and has not been widely used in clinical practice. This consensus paper aims to discuss multiple PWV measurements currently available in Asia and to provide evidence-based assessment together with recommendations on the clinical use of PWV. For the methodology, PWV measurement including the central elastic artery is essential and measurements including both the central elastic and peripheral muscular arteries, such as brachial-ankle PWV and cardio-ankle vascular index, can be a good alternative. As Asian populations are rapidly aging, timely detection and intervention of “early vascular aging” in terms of abnormally high PWV values are recommended. More evidence is needed to determine if a PWV-guided therapeutic approach will be beneficial to the prevention of cardiovascular diseases beyond current strategies. Large-scale randomized controlled intervention studies are needed to guide clinicians.

Background and aimLow socioeconomic status (SES) and frequent sauna bathing are associated with increased and decreased risk of all-cause mortality, respectively. Whether there is an interplay among SES, sauna bathing and all-cause mortality risk is not known. We aimed to evaluate the separate and joint associations of SES and frequency of sauna bathing (FSB) with all-cause mortality risk in a prospective cohort study.MethodsWe employed the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Study cohort comprising of 2575 men aged 42–61 years at study entry. Self-reported SES and sauna bathing habits were assessed at baseline. Socioeconomic status was categorized as low and high (median cutoff) and FSB as low and high (defined as ≤2 and 3–7 sessions/week, respectively).ResultsDuring a median follow-up of 27.8 years, 1618 deaths occurred. Comparing low vs high SES, the multivariable-adjusted HR (95 % CI) for all-cause mortality was 1.31 (1.18–1.45). Comparing high vs low FSB, the multivariable-adjusted HR (95 % CI) for all-cause mortality was 0.86 (0.76–0.97). Compared with high SES-low FSB, low SES-low FSB was associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality 1.35 (1.20–1.51), without significant evidence of an association for low SES-high FSB and all-cause mortality risk 1.07 (0.89–1.29). Positive additive and multiplicative interactions were found between SES and FSB.ConclusionsThere exists an interplay among SES, sauna bathing and all-cause mortality risk in a general Finnish male population. Frequent sauna baths may offset the increased overall mortality risk due to low SES.

Little is known if heart rate responses during and after exercise test may be associated with the risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD). Our aim was to determine if exercise heart rate reserve and recovery, providing non-invasive indices, may predict SCD risk in general male population.We evaluated the impact of delayed heart rate reserve and slow heart rate recovery and the risk of SCD in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease prospective cohort study of randomly selected 1967 men aged 42-61 years at recruitment. Heart rate reserve was calculated as the difference between the maximal attained heart rate and resting heart rate, whereas heart rate recovery was defined as maximal heart rate minus the heart rate measured at 2 min of recovery, on a symptom-limited cardiopulmonary exercise testing.During a median follow-up interval of 25 years, 209 events of SCD occurred. The age and examination adjusted relative hazards of SCD were in the lowest third of heart rate reserve 3.86 (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.56-5.80, p 0.001) and the lowest third of heart rate recovery 2.86 (95% CI 1.95-4.20, p 0.001) as compared to men in the highest third of heart rate reserve and heart rate recovery, respectively. After adjusting for potential confounders, the respective relative hazards were 1.96 (95% CI 1.24-3.12) and 1.75 (95% CI 1.16-2.64). Each unit increment (1 beat/min) in heart rate reserve and heart rate recovery decreased the incidence of SCD by 1-2%.Delayed exercise heart rate reserve and slow heart rate recovery predicted the risk of SCD, suggesting that heart rate responses may be associated with an increased risk for SCD in general population.

Both blood pressure and C-reactive protein (CRP) are individually associated with cardiovascular mortality risk. However, the combined effect of systolic blood pressure (SBP) and CRP on coronary heart disease (CHD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality risk, has not been studied.We evaluated the joint impact of SBP and CRP and the risk of mortality in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease prospective cohort study of 1622 men aged 42-61 years at recruitment with no history of CVD. SBP and CRP were measured. SBP was categorized as low and high (cut-off 135 mmHg) and CRP as low and high (cut-off 1.54 mg/L) based on ROC curves. Multivariable adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) with confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. During a median follow-up of 28 years, 196 cases of CHD and 320 cases of CVD deaths occurred. Elevated SBP (135 mmHg) combined with elevated (CRP1.54 mg/L) were associated with CHD and CVD mortality (HR 3.41, 95% CI, 2.20-5.28, p 0.001) and (HR 2.93, 95% CI, 2.11-4.06, p 0.001) respectively after adjustment for age, examination year, smoking, alcohol consumption, BMI, Type 2 diabetes, energy expenditure, total cholesterol, serum HDL cholesterol, antihypertensive medication and use of aspirin.The combined effect of both high systolic blood pressure and high CRP is associated with increased risk of future CHD and CVD mortality as compared with both low SBP and low CRP levels in general male Caucasian population.

Elevated systolic blood pressure (SBP) is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) death, whereas frequent sauna bathing is associated with a reduced CVD mortality. However, whether frequent sauna bathing mitigates CVD mortality among adults with elevated SBP has not been previously investigated. We examined the prospective associations of SBP-frequency of sauna bathing (FSB) phenotype with the risk of CVD mortality in a cohort of Caucasian men. The Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Study cohort comprising of 2,575 men aged 42–61 years at baseline was employed for this analysis. Resting blood pressure was measured using a standardized protocol and sauna bathing habits were assessed by a self-administered questionnaire. Systolic blood pressure was categorized as normal and high (

BackgroundWe tested the hypothesis that an exaggerated systolic blood pressure (ESBP) at maximal exercise workload would be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality, and that high cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) attenuates this risk.MethodsThis prospective study was based on the general population sample of 1,481 men (aged 42–61 years) who did not have a history of CVD at baseline and were followed up in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease cohort study. Exercise blood pressure and CRF were measured during cardiopulmonary exercise testing, and an ESBP was defined by a peak systolic blood pressure ≥210 mm Hg and CRF categorized as tertiles and unfit and fit groups.ResultsDuring a 26-year median follow-up, 231 CVD deaths occurred. After adjusting for potential confounding factors, an ESBP was associated with an increased risk of CVD mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 1.43, 95% confidence interval: 1.06–1.94), while the highest tertile of CRF was associated with a lower risk of CVD mortality (HR 0.64, 0.43–0.95). In the joint association analyses of ESBP and CRF, ≥210 mm Hg-unfit group had a higher risk of CVD mortality (HR 1.70, 1.02–2.83), but also ≥210 mm Hg-fit group had an increased risk of CVD death (HR 1.95, 1.20–3.18) compared with their ConclusionsThese results indicate that an ESBP is independently associated with an increased risk of CVD death, but moderate-to-high levels of CRF does not attenuate CVD mortality risk in those with ESBP.

Purpose: Inflammatory pathways are involved in the pathogenesis of pneumonia. Frequent sauna sessions may reduce the risk of respiratory tract infections including pneumonia independent of inflammation. We aimed to evaluate the independent and joint associations of high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and frequency of sauna bathing (FSB) with risk of pneumonia in a prospective cohort study. Methods: Serum hsCRP as an inflammatory marker was measured using an immunometric assay and FSB was assessed by self-reported sauna bathing habits at baseline in 2,264 men aged 42-61 years. Serum hsCRP was categorized as normal and high (≤ 3 and > 3 mg/L respectively) and FSB as low and high (defined as ≤ 1 and 2-7 sessions/week respectively). Multivariable-adjusted HRs (CIs) were calculated for incident pneumonia. Results: A total of 528 cases of pneumonia occurred during a median follow-up of 26.6 years. Comparing high vs normal hsCRP, the multivariable-adjusted risk for pneumonia was (HR = 1.30; 95% CI, 1.04 - 1.62). The corresponding risk was (HR = 0.79; 95% CI, 0.66 – 0.95) comparing high vs low FSB. Compared to men with normal hsCRP & low FSB, high hsCRP & low FSB was associated with an increased risk of pneumonia in multivariable analysis (HR = 1.67; 95% CI, 1.21 – 2.29), with no evidence of an association for high hsCRP & high FSB and pneumonia (HR = 0.94; 95% CI, 0.69 - 1.29). Conclusions: In a general middle-aged to older male Caucasian population, frequent sauna baths attenuated the increased risk of pneumonia due to inflammation.

Although the chronotropic response to exercise testing, defined as an inadequate heart rate response to incremental exercise to volitional fatigue, is associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes, it remains unclear whether this response is related to the future risk of cerebrovascular events. We tested the hypothesis that the chronotropic response to exercise is associated with an increased risk of stroke in a general population. This prospective study was based on a population sample of 2,036 men aged 42 to 60 years in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease cohort study. Chronotropic response to exercise was defined as the percentage of chronotropic index ([maximum heart rate - resting heart rate] / [220 - age - resting heart rate] × 100). Incident strokes were obtained from the Finnish national hospital discharge registry. During a median 27-year follow-up, 343 incident stroke (289 ischemic and 66 hemorrhagic) events occurred. Twelve events were diagnosed as both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. Comparing the bottom versus top quintile of chronotropic reserve, there was an increased risk of stroke (hazard ratio [HR] 1.73, 95% confidence Interval [CI]: 1.09 to 2.75) and ischemic stroke (HR 1.72, 95% CI, 1.04 to 2.85), but not hemorrhagic stroke (HR 2.23, 95% CI, 0.77 to 6.46) in analyses that adjusted for potential risk factors. These results suggest that an impaired chronotropic response to exercise is independently associated with a higher risk of total and ischemic stroke events in middle-aged men. The role of chronotropic incompetence during exercise testing as a potential prognostic indicator for stroke risk needs further investigation.

Introduction Estimated pulse wave velocity (ePWV) is emerging as a predictor of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Approximately one-third of all deaths are not related to the top nine causes of mortality as defined by the CDC. We examined the association of ePWV with residual-specific mortality in a large sample of US adults. Methods Data from the 1999-2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were used (n = 13 909 adults between the ages of 18-85 years), with follow-up through 2011 (mean follow-up, 104 months). ePWV was calculated from a regression equation using age and mean blood pressure. Results After adjusting for age, pulse pressure, race/ethnicity, blood lipids, glucose, C-reactive protein, eGFR, smoking, self-reported physical activity, history of hypertension and diabetes, for every 1 m/s increase in ePWV, there was a 17% increased risk of residual-specific mortality (hazard ratio = 1.17, 95% CI = 1.02-1.36; P = 0.03). If using a previously recommended clinical cut-point of 10 m/s, those with an elevated ePWV had an increased risk of 57% (hazard ratio = 1.57; 95% CI = 0.98-2.50; P = 0.06). Conclusion ePWV is associated with residual-specific mortality in a nationally representative sample of adults.

Background Increased aortic stiffness, assessed as carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV), contributes to cerebrovascular damage and is predictive of cerebrovascular events. Aims and methods We sought to examine the association between estimated pulse wave velocity (ePWV), a proxy of carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity, and stroke and its subtypes (ischemic and hemorrhagic) in a prospective cohort of 2666 men (aged mean 53.1, range 42–61 years) enrolled in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease cohort study. Results During a median 28-year follow-up, 471 incident stroke (397 ischemic and 94 hemorrhagic) events occurred. After adjusting for several established and emerging risk factors including age and pulse pressure, comparing the p versus bottom quartiles of ePWV, there was an increased risk of stroke (hazard ratio [HR] 2.37, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.57–3.58), ischemic stroke (HR 2.23, 95% CI, 1.42–3.50), and hemorrhagic stroke (HR 3.57, 95% CI, 1.45–8.76). Conclusion These findings demonstrate that ePWV is independently associated with the risk of stroke in middle-aged men.

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Though evidence suggests that higher cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) levels can offset the adverse effects of other risk factors, it is unknown if CRF offsets the increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) due to smoking. We aimed to evaluate the combined effects of smoking status and CRF on incident COPD risk using a prospective cohort of 2295 middle-aged and older Finnish men. Peak oxygen uptake, assessed with a respiratory gas exchange analyzer, was used as a measure of CRF. Smoking status was self-reported. CRF was categorised as low and high based on median cutoffs, whereas smoking status was classified into smokers and non-smokers. Multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios with confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. During 26 years median follow-up, 119 COPD cases were recorded. Smoking increased COPD risk 10.59 (95% CI 6.64–16.88), and high CRF levels decreased COPD risk 0.43 (95% CI 0.25–0.73). Compared with non-smoker-low CRF, smoker-low CRF was associated with an increased COPD risk in multivariable analysis 9.79 (95% CI 5.61–17.08), with attenuated but persisting evidence of an association for smoker-high CRF and COPD risk 6.10 (95% CI 3.22–11.57). An additive interaction was found between smoking status and CRF (RERI = 6.99). Except for CRF and COPD risk, all associations persisted on accounting for mortality as a competing risk event. Despite a wealth of evidence on the ability of high CRF to offset the adverse effects of other risk factors, it appears high CRF levels have only modest attenuating effects on the very strong association between smoking and COPD risk.

Serum zinc has been implicated as an important mediator of haemostasis and thrombosis. However, the nature and magnitude of any potential relationship between serum zinc and venous thromboembolism (VTE) is unknown. We aimed to evaluate the prospective association between serum zinc and VTE risk. We analyzed data involving 2472 men aged 42–61 years without a history of VTE in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease population-based cohort study, with the assessment of serum zinc concentrations using atomic absorption spectrometry. Hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals [CIs]) for incident VTE were estimated. A total of 166 VTE cases occurred during a median follow-up of 27.1 years. The risk of VTE per 1 standard deviation increase in serum zinc in analysis adjusted for systolic blood pressure, body mass index, total cholesterol, triglycerides, smoking status, histories of type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease, medication for dyslipidaemia, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and socioeconomic status was (HR 1.03; 95% CI 0.86–1.22), which remained similar (HR 1.04; 95% CI 0.87–1.23) following further adjustment for inflammation and history of cancer. Comparing the extreme tertiles of serum zinc, the corresponding adjusted HRs (95% CIs) were 0.92 (0.63–1.36) and 0.94 (0.64–1.39), respectively. Imputed results based on 2682 participants and 176 VTE events were consistent with the observed results. In middle-aged and older Finnish men, serum zinc is not associated with future VTE risk. Other large-scale prospective studies conducted in other populations are needed to confirm or refute these findings.

Background Increased aortic stiffness, assessed as carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV), is associated with incident heart failure risk. Methods and Results We examined the association between estimated pulse wave velocity (ePWV), derived from a regression equation using age and mean arterial pressure, and incident heart failure risk in a prospective cohort of 2,465 men (age range 42-61 years) enrolled in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease cohort study. During a median follow-up of 26 years, 431 heart failure events occurred. After adjusting for potential confounders (age, pulse pressure, body mass index, smoking, alcohol consumption, diabetes, history of cardiovascular disease (CVD), family history of CVD, use of medications [anti-hypertensive agents and lipid-lowering drugs], total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, C-reactive protein, creatinine, socioeconomic status, and physical activity), the highest levels of ePWV (≥ 10m/s) were significantly associated with an increased risk of heart failure (HR 2.04, 95% CI: 1.29-3.21), compared with the lowest level of ePWV ( Conclusion Increased ePWV is related to future heart failure risk, independent of several traditional CVD risk factors, in middle-aged men.

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a prominent cause of mortality in the United States and globally, and both age and blood pressure (BP) are potent risk factors. Measurement of vascular age as captured by aortic stiffness offers insight into CVD risk extending beyond traditional

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