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As the COVID-19 pandemic was spreading rapidly throughout the world, the most widespread reaction in many countries to curtail the disease was lockdown. As a result, educational institutions had to find an alternative to face-to-face learning. The most obvious solution was e-learning. Conventional tertiary institutions with little virtual learning experience had to deal with an unprecedented challenge. This study delineates practices that can be suggested for conventional institutions of tertiary education that may be planning to acquire more e-learning experience in the post-COVID era so that they may be better prepared to move on beyond traditional classroom teaching. The qualitative research method was utilized to carry out this study. The data collected for the study comprised mainly two sources: the existing literature that tackles the issue of how tertiary institutions around the world shifted to e-learning during the pandemic, and an analysis by the researchers of COVID-related circulars that were issued by the Saudi Ministry of Education and by Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University. The review of related literature and the analysis of the circulars enabled the researchers to produce a number of suggestions aimed at improving the e-learning experience of conventional tertiary institutions. The researchers followed five steps in their literature review: (1) pinpointing search terms and then creating a search strategy and implementing it; (2) sorting the studies gathered, excluding duplicates and studies deemed irrelevant, and decreeing standards for deciding what to keep and what to rule out; (3) evaluating the studies in the light of those standards; (4) obtaining data; and (5) analysing data. This study does not recommend that conventional tertiary institutions become 100% online, but it does suggest that those institutions should make some learning content digitally accessible, build community partnerships, encourage self-study skills among students, help students change their learning style from passive to active, and revisit their e-assessment practices. This paper also stresses the importance of giving further support to teaching staff, sheds light on how institution buildings can reopen smoothly as the restrictions ease, discusses what factors influence the outcomes of e-learning, and tackles the issue of student dropouts during the pandemic. This study concludes by outlining the important notion of adopting blended learning and developing e-learning programs on an international scale.

This study examines the frequency and the functions of code switching in informal conversations among Jordanian pilots, who have created their own jargon. It also explores the most frequent English expressions that the pilots switch to in their informal Arabic discourse. The conversations of eight Jordanian pilots aged between thirty and fifty-five were tape-recorded in three separate informal natural settings. The data were used for the purpose of finding out what the pragmatic and communicative functions are that the pilots' code switching serves, and to investigate the most frequent expressions used in their conversations. The results showed that eight main conversational functions can be identified in their code-switching routines, namely: to compensate for the lack of exact equivalents in Arabic, to avoid interruption to the communication when not knowing the Arabic equivalent, to replace long and technical terminology in Arabic with acronyms in English (acronyms are not common in Arabic), to use aviation titles and ranks, to quote/ directly report phrases of speakers, to say the numbers, to refer to names of companies, places, documents, and organizations, and to insert some English formulaic expressions. The findings also showed that the most frequent terms and expressions used in code switching amongst Jordanian pilots are more related to the aviation register than to common-core vocabulary.

This study aims to delineate the observations of instructors at Princess Sumaya University for Technology (PSUT) in Jordan with regards to online assessment of their students in the time of the Coronavirus lockdown. Specifically, the study attempts to find out whether universities are prepared for online assessment during the lockdown and to probe feasible solutions to the challenges that hinder proper assessment in a virtual learning environment (VLE). As the challenges are determined, the study suggests a number of practical solutions. Data on faculty's observations were obtained by means of an online survey. Eighty-three faculty members participated in this study. The findings showed that universities swiftly shifted to e-classes during the lockdown but that they were not adequately primed for an appropriate assessment in an online environment. The findings further showed that instructors were skeptical about the efficiency of remote assessment of their students. In addition, faculty members believed there was still a long way to go with regards to (1) the unavailability of reliable software to preclude academic dishonesty; (2) some faculty being unable to assess their students in VLE as it was their first experience; and (3) formative assessment not having been given enough attention. It is concluded that universities should have an exigency strategy for any sudden future lockdowns. This strategy includes, among other things, intensive e-teaching and e-testing training for faculty, high-tech invigilation and plagiarism software, reliable e-learning platforms with sufficient Internet bandwidth, setting up an e-assessment council at the university level.

The significance of this study is heightened by the fact that critical thinking (CT) is vastly seen as a major objective of higher education and the basis for the development of learning outcomes. Thus, this quasi-experimental aims at promoting and assessing students' critical thinking skills (CTSs) through argumentative essay-writing. It also investigates the correlation between CT and essay-writing skills. The main question addressed is: what is the effectiveness of promoting CTSs through argumentative essay-writing among English major students in terms of interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation? An instructional material was designed and implemented in classroom teaching to enhance CT. The study was conducted on 98 English major male participants enrolled in an essay-writing course at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University (PSAU), Saudi Arabia. The participants were randomly assigned to either intervention (n =49) or control (n =49) groups. Quantitative-qualitative methods were employed. Pretest and posttest were applied to both groups. The Facione and Facione (1994) CT scoring rubric was utilized for assessing CTSs. Findings revealed that CT and essay-writing skills are significantly positively correlated. Assessment of students' essays denoted that the intervention group significantly surpassed the control in the five CTSs: "interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation" (Facione 1990, p. 8). It can be concluded that explicitly teaching CTSs through essay-writing can be effective in the development of these skills. The study recommended that further studies be implemented in different universities and also using other CT definitions and skills, and comparisons between the findings could be made.

The purpose of this study is to suggest priorities for reorienting traditional institutions of higher education (IHE) toward online teaching and learning beyond the COVID-19 experience. This research applied the qualitative research method. Data collection sources included both a systematic literature review relating to how COVID-19 informed online distance learning across the globe and an analysis of circulars germane to the pandemic that were issued by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Saudi Arabia and by Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University (PSAU). Guided by those two types of data, that is, review of the literature in general and the MOE and PSAU circulars in particular, and also illuminated by their own experiences of online teaching during the lockdown, the researchers were able to put forward those priorities. For the systematic review of the literature, five steps were performed: (1) identifying search terms and developing and applying a search strategy; (2) screening the obtained research papers, removing duplicates and papers outside the focal point, and establishing inclusion/exclusion criteria; (3) assessing the research papers against the inclusion/exclusion criteria; (4) data extraction; and (5) data synthesis. Although this article does not suggest traditional IHE should go entirely digital, it highlights the need for IHE to ensure access to online learning content, develop more partnerships with community, develop online self-study skills, get students to shift from passive to active learning, and a need to reconsider current e-assessment. Additionally, the study emphasizes the need to provide additional support for faculty members, how university buildings should be gradually reopened, controlling factors influencing online learning outcomes, and addressing the issue of dropouts in IHE. Finally, the study underlines the need to add further emphasis to the importance of integrating blended learning in the university curriculum and navigating toward developing global distance learning programs.

Aim/Purpose: This study carried out a systematic review of the literature on artificial intelligence (AI) in English language teaching (ELT). The objective was to delineate the current research progress in the field and to further understand the challenges. Background: The study analyzed articles published between 2015 and 2021. Methodology: The qualitative research method was employed. Five steps were taken to steer the review. 200 articles were scrutinized; 64 were retained. Contribution: Prior research on AI in ELT has not investigated how the literature is progressing or what areas of AI are being covered. Without a holistic picture, some important research findings could be missed. Understanding how studies on AI in ELT are designed and implemented will contribute to a greater understanding of the existing state of research. Findings: Findings show that there is a promising future for AI in ELT. AI in ELT yielded positive results in terms of optimizing the English language skills, translation, assessment, recognition, attitude, satisfaction, etc. It was also found out that more and more articles on the topic are being published; the mixed research method is the most commonly used, higher education level is the most sampled, students as participants are the most sampled, and most studies developed novel AI-based systems. Various AI approaches have been identified in the reviewed studies, including machine learning, neural network, support vector machine, genetic algorithms, deep learning, decision tree, expert system, natural language processing, data mining, cloud computing, and edge computing. However, AI in ELT is still in its infancy, where little research has been conducted and gaps in the literature are still present, especially in terms of inherent issues related to body language, gestures, expressions, emotions, translation, lack of elaborate description of teaching material used for learning driven by AI, uncertainties and vagueness with regards to what can be considered under the realm of AI, and most authors being outside of the ELT discipline. Recommendations for Practitioners: This literature review is likely to provide practitioners with an overview of the current adopted technology, research method, instruments and/or tools, educational level, language skill, and the effects reported by the AI-based studies for designing effective systems for the use of AI in their ELT classrooms. Recommendations for Researchers: Researchers need to conduct research on AI in ELT along with a detailed in-depth description of the methodology, research design, and the proposed systems used to achieve AI in ELT. Furthermore, it is recommended that researchers explore the efficiency of AI-based systems used in previous research and ensure their relevance and functionality. They are also required to provide in-depth analysis of the challenges inherent to systems that have been highlighted in the literature, which will maximize the potentials of these AI-based technologies. Impact on Society: The findings of this paper can provide visualization of research findings that could particularly benefit researchers, educators, and AI specialists who are involved in the study of the applications of AI in ELT. Future Research: Future AI research needs to seriously include more detailed descriptions of the method in further research.

Aim/Purpose: This study investigates the perceptions of faculty members at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia, towards preparedness of institutions of higher education (IHE) for assessment in virtual learning environments (VLEs) during the COVID-19 lockdown. In addition, the study explores evidence of bona fide challenges that impede the implementation of assessment in VLE for both formative and summative purposes, and it attempts to propose some pragmatic solutions. Background: Assessment of student performance is an essential aspect of teaching and learning. However, substantial challenges exist in assessing student learning in VLEs. Methodology: Data on faculty's perceptions were collected using an e-survey. Ninety-six faculty members took part in this study. Contribution: This paper contributes to COVID-19 research by investigating preparedness of IHE for assessment in VLEs from faculty members' perceptions. This practical research explores deleterious challenges that impede the implementation of assessment in VLE for both formative and summative purposes, and it proposes effective solutions to prevent future challenges. These solutions can be used by IHE to improve the quality of assessment in VLEs. Findings: The findings revealed that IHE were not fully prepared to provide a proper assessment in a VLE during the lockdown, nor did they have clear mechanisms for online assessment. The findings also showed that faculty members were not convinced that e-assessment could adequately assess all intended learning outcomes. They were convinced that most students cheated in a way or another. Additionally, faculty had other concerns about (1) the absence of advanced systems to prevent academic dishonesty; (2) insufficient qualifications of some faculty in e-assessment because most of them have never done it before, and e-assessment has never been mandated by the university before the pandemic; and (3) insufficient attention paid to formative assessment. Recommendations for Practitioners: It is recommended that decision makers help faculty members improve by continuous training on developing e-assessment tests for both formative and summative assessments. Decision makers should also ensure the inclusion of technology-based invigilation software to preclude cheating, make pedagogical and technical expertise available, and reconsider e-assessment mechanisms. Faculty members are recommended to attend training sessions if they do not master the basic skills of e-assessment and should devise a variety of innovative e-assessments for formative and summative purposes. Recommendations for Researchers: More similar work is needed to provide more solutions to the challenges identified in this paper regarding the e-assessment in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Impact on Society: The study suggests introducing technology-based solutions to ensure e-assessment security, or holding tests in locations where they can be invigilated whilst rules of social distancing can still be applied. Future Research: Future research could suggest processes and mechanisms to help faculty develop assessment in VLEs more effectively.

Suffixation influences lexical stress in one of three ways. A suffix attached to a word root/stem may take the stress itself, or it may cause it to move from where it was in the uninflected stem to another syllable, or it may keep stress as is. Stress misassignment is very common in the speech of Arabic-speaking English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. This study was conducted to investigate how Arabic-speaking EFL learners at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University (PSAU) in Saudi Arabia assign lexical stress in word roots/stems and their suffixed derivatives to find out whether stress in suffixed words presented a greater challenge to the learners than stress in the stem; the study also aimed to examine whether errors in stress assignment were caused by first language(L1) interference. 112 students from PSAU were randomly chosen to pronounce 80 suffixed words as well as their roots/stems. The pronunciations were recorded, and the recordings were analyzed by the three researchers and three raters. The study concluded that suffixed words do not present a more significant stress assignment challenge than uninflected stems, the type of syllable attached to a word is not as important as the number of syllables, syllable weight and structure in a word, and that L1 influence may be one of the causes but not the only cause of lexical stress misassignment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the COVID-19 pandemic was spreading rapidly throughout the world, the most widespread reaction in many countries to curtail the disease was lockdown. As a result, educational institutions had to find an alternative to face-to-face learning. The most obvious solution was e-learning. Conventional tertiary institutions with little virtual learning experience had to deal with an unprecedented challenge. This study delineates practices that can be suggested for conventional institutions of tertiary education that may be planning to acquire more e-learning experience in the post-COVID era so that they may be better prepared to move on beyond traditional classroom teaching. The qualitative research method was utilized to carry out this study. The data collected for the study comprised mainly two sources: the existing literature that tackles the issue of how tertiary institutions around the world shifted to e-learning during the pandemic, and an analysis by the researchers of COVID-related circulars that were issued by the Saudi Ministry of Education and by Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University. The review of related literature and the analysis of the circulars enabled the researchers to produce a number of suggestions aimed at improving the e-learning experience of conventional tertiary institutions. The researchers followed five steps in their literature review: (1) pinpointing search terms and then creating a search strategy and implementing it, (2) sorting the studies gathered, excluding duplicates and studies deemed irrelevant, and decreeing standards for deciding what to keep and what to rule out, (3) evaluating the studies in the light of those standards, (4) obtaining data, and (5) analysing data. This study does not recommend that conventional tertiary institutions become 100% online, but it does suggest that those institutions should make some learning content digitally accessible, build community partnerships, encourage self-study skills among students, help students change their learning style from passive to active, and revisit their e-assessment practices. This paper also stresses the importance of giving further support to teaching staff, sheds light on how institution buildings can reopen smoothly as the restrictions ease, discusses what factors influence the outcomes of e-learning, and tackles the issue of student dropouts during the pandemic. This study concludes by outlining the important notion of adopting blended learning and developing e-learning programs on an international scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim/Purpose: This study carried out a systematic review of the literature on artificial intelligence (AI) in English language teaching (ELT). The objective was to delineate the current research progress in the field and to further understand the challenges. Background: The study analyzed articles published between 2015 and 2021. Methodology: The qualitative research method was employed. Five steps were taken to steer the review. 200 articles were scrutinized; 64 were retained. Contribution: Prior research on AI in ELT has not investigated how the literature is progressing or what areas of AI are being covered. Without a holistic picture, some important research Findings could be missed. Understanding how studies on AI in ELT are designed and implemented will contribute to a greater understanding of the existing state of research. Findings: Findings show that there is a promising future for AI in ELT. AI in ELT yielded positive results in terms of optimizing the English language skills, translation, assessment, recognition, attitude, satisfaction, etc. It was also found out that more and more articles on the topic are being published; the mixed research method is the most commonly used, higher education level is the most sampled, students as participants are the most sampled, and most studies developed novel AI-based systems. Various AI approaches have been identified in the reviewed studies, including machine learning, neural network, support vector machine, genetic algorithms, deep learning, decision tree, expert system, natural language processing, data mining, cloud computing, and edge computing. However, AI in ELT is still in its infancy, where little research has been conducted and gaps in the literature are still present, especially in terms of inherent issues related to body language, gestures, expressions, emotions, translation, lack of elaborate description of teaching material used for learning driven by AI, uncertainties and vagueness with regards to what can be considered under the realm of AI, and most authors being outside of the ELT discipline. Recommendations for Practitioners: This literature review is likely to provide practitioners with an overview of the current adopted technology, research method, instruments and/or tools, educational level, language skill, and the effects reported by the AI-based studies for designing effective systems for the use of AI in their ELT classrooms. Recommendations for Researchers: Researchers need to conduct research on AI in ELT along with a detailed indepth description of the methodology, research design, and the proposed systems used to achieve AI in ELT. Furthermore, it is recommended that researchers explore the efficiency of AI-based systems used in previous research and ensure their relevance and functionality. They are also required to provide indepth analysis of the challenges inherent to systems that have been highlighted in the literature, which will maximize the potentials of these AI-based technologies. Impact on Society: The Findings of this paper can provide visualization of research Findings that could particularly benefit researchers, educators, and AI specialists who are involved in the study of the applications of AI in ELT. Future Research: Future AI research needs to seriously include more detailed descriptions of the method in further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of L1 interference in English stress assignment produced by Arabicspeaking EFL learners has received little research attention. This study aims to investigate whether faulty stress assignment by Arab learners is arbitrary or systematic. It also attempts to discover a linkage, if any, between Arabic phonotactic rules of stress placement and stress misplacement in English by Saudi learners. 120 learners from Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University were randomly chosen from 3 different levels of English proficiency (lower-intermediate, upper-intermediate, advanced); they were asked to pronounce 72 stimulus words that covered all morpho-syllabic word structures that the learners often mispronounced. The recordings were analysed using WASP spectrogram software and also by two independent raters. Results strongly indicated that crosslinguistic influence may have caused the learners to consistently a) place the stress on a specific syllable in a word even when this word has multiple stress assignments with a difference in meaning, b) stress the second item in a compound noun instead of the first, c) place the stress on the penultimate syllable of most polysyllabic words, d) place the stress on the second syllable of contracted negative auxiliary verbs, and e) misplace stress irrespective of their level of English proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the frequency and the functions of code switching in informal conversations among Jordanian pilots, who have created their own jargon. It also explores the most frequent English expressions that the pilots switch to in their informal Arabic discourse. The conversations of eight Jordanian pilots aged between thirty and fifty-five were tape-recorded in three separate informal natural settings. The data were used for the purpose of finding out what the pragmatic and communicative functions are that the pilots' code switching serves, and to investigate the most frequent expressions used in their conversations. The results showed that eight main conversational functions can be identified in their code-switching routines, namely: to compensate for the lack of exact equivalents in Arabic, to avoid interruption to the communication when not knowing the Arabic equivalent, to replace long and technical terminology in Arabic with acronyms in English (acronyms are not common in Arabic), to use aviation titles and ranks, to quote/ directly report phrases of speakers, to say the numbers, to refer to names of companies, places, documents, and organizations, and to insert some English formulaic expressions. The findings also showed that the most frequent terms and expressions used in code switching amongst Jordanian pilots are more related to the aviation register than to common-core vocabulary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to delineate the observations of instructors at Princess Sumaya University for Technology (PSUT) in Jordan with regards to online assessment of their students in the time of the Coronavirus lockdown. Specifically, the study attempts to find out whether universities are prepared for online assessment during the lockdown and to probe feasible solutions to the challenges that hinder proper assessment in a virtual learning environment (VLE). As the challenges are determined, the study suggests a number of practical solutions. Data on faculty’s observations were obtained by means of an online survey. Eighty-three faculty members participated in this study. The findings showed that universities swiftly shifted to e-classes during the lockdown but that they were not adequately primed for an appropriate assessment in an online environment. The findings further showed that instructors were skeptical about the efficiency of remote assessment of their students. In addition, faculty members believed there was still a long way to go with regards to (1) the unavailability of reliable software to preclude academic dishonesty; (2) some faculty being unable to assess their students in VLE as it was their first experience; and (3) formative assessment not having been given enough attention. It is concluded that universities should have an exigency strategy for any sudden future lockdowns. This strategy includes, among other things, intensive e-teaching and e-testing training for faculty, high-tech invigilation and plagiarism software, reliable e-learning platforms with sufficient Internet bandwidth, setting up an e-assessment council at the university level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim/Purpose This study investigates the perceptions of faculty members at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia, towards preparedness of institutions of higher education (IHE) for assessment in virtual learning environments (VLEs) during the COVID-19 lockdown. In addition, the study explores evidence of bona fide challenges that impede the implementation of assessment in VLE for both formative and summative purposes, and it attempts to propose some pragmatic solutions. Background Assessment of student performance is an essential aspect of teaching and learning. However, substantial challenges exist in assessing student learning in VLEs. Methodology Data on faculty’s perceptions were collected using an e-survey. Ninety-six faculty members took part in this study. Contribution This paper contributes to COVID-19 research by investigating preparedness of IHE for assessment in VLEs from faculty members’ perceptions. This practical research explores deleterious challenges that impede the implementation of assessment in VLE for both formative and summative purposes, and it proposes effective solutions to prevent future challenges. These solutions can be used by IHE to improve the quality of assessment in VLEs. Findings The findings revealed that IHE were not fully prepared to provide a proper assessment in a VLE during the lockdown, nor did they have clear mechanisms for online assessment. The findings also showed that faculty members were not convinced that e-assessment could adequately assess all intended learning outcomes. They were convinced that most students cheated in a way or another. Additionally, faculty had other concerns about (1) the absence of advanced systems to prevent academic dishonesty; (2) insufficient qualifications of some faculty in e-assessment because most of them have never done it before, and e-assessment has never been mandated by the university before the pandemic; and (3) insufficient attention paid to formative assessment. Recommendations for Practitioners It is recommended that decision makers help faculty members improve by continuous training on developing e-assessment tests for both formative and summative assessments. Decision makers should also ensure the inclusion of technology-based invigilation software to preclude cheating, make pedagogical and technical expertise available, and reconsider e-assessment mechanisms. Faculty members are recommended to attend training sessions if they do not master the basic skills of e-assessment and should devise a variety of innovative e-assessments for formative and summative purposes. Recommendation for Researchers More similar work is needed to provide more solutions to the challenges identified in this paper regarding the e-assessment in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Impact on Society The study suggests introducing technology-based solutions to ensure e-assessment security, or holding tests in locations where they can be invigilated whilst rules of social distancing can still be applied. Future Research Future research could suggest processes and mechanisms to help faculty develop assessment in VLEs more effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The significance of this study is heightened by the fact that critical thinking (CT) is vastly seen as a major objective of higher education and the basis for the development of learning outcomes. Thus, this quasi-experimental aims at promoting and assessing students’ critical thinking skills (CTSs) through argumentative essay-writing. It also investigates the correlation between CT and essay-writing skills. The main question addressed is: what is the effectiveness of promoting CTSs through argumentative essay-writing among English major students in terms of interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation? An instructional material was designed and implemented in classroom teaching to enhance CT. The study was conducted on 98 English major male participants enrolled in an essay-writing course at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University (PSAU), Saudi Arabia. The participants were randomly assigned to either intervention (n =49) or control (n =49) groups. Quantitative-qualitative methods were employed. Pretest and posttest were applied to both groups. The Facione and Facione (1994) CT scoring rubric was utilized for assessing CTSs. Findings revealed that CT and essay-writing skills are significantly positively correlated. Assessment of students’ essays denoted that the intervention group significantly surpassed the control in the five CTSs: "interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation" (Facione 1990, p. 8). It can be concluded that explicitly teaching CTSs through essay-writing can be effective in the development of these skills. The study recommended that further studies be implemented in different universities and also using other CT definitions and skills, and comparisons between the findings could be made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]