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The three predominant modes of judicial interpretation are living constitutionalism, originalism, and the umpire model. The living constitutionalist believes the Constitution is a living document that must change and adapt over time. The living constitutionalist considers the history, text, precedent, and policy when deciding a case. This is in contrast to the originalist, who considers the history and text of the document when deciding a case. The originalist favors judicial restraint and seeks to limit the role of the judge. The devotee of the umpire model champions the independent judge whose function is to the law and does not consider policy. The umpire has a strike zone in which the judge uses to "call balls and strikes." Umpire judges do not create their own strike zones but may find it necessary to expand or contract the strike zone when faced with a difficult case. The umpire model blends the best and most advantageous aspects of the other models, making it the most attractive judicial model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is particularly prevalent among young people and refers to uncontrolled smartphone use that results in harm or functional impairment. The pathway model asserts that there are distinct patterns of PSU (addictive, antisocial, and risky smartphone use). Motives may be key factors in the aetiology of PSU. However, most of the research investigating which motives influence PSU has measured smartphone use motives by adapting items designed to assess motives for other forms of media. This approach is a limitation, as it may miss motives unique to the context of smartphone use. Addressing this, the present study used a qualitative approach to investigate which motives may influence distinct patterns of PSU. Reflexive thematic analysis of focus group data (N = 25 participants aged 18–25 years) indicated that smartphone use to cope with discomfort (low mood and anxiety, social awkwardness, boredom, safety), obtain rewards (validation, pleasure), conform to perceived social norms, and for their instrumental value differentially motivated addictive, antisocial, and risky patterns of PSU. Some of these motives (social awkwardness, feel safe, and conform) are not well represented by current measures of smartphone use motives. Therefore, a new comprehensive measure of smartphone use motives may be needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motives for smartphone use may be key factors underlying problematic smartphone use (PSU). However, no study has reviewed the literature investigating the association of motives with PSU. As such, we conducted a systematic review to: (a) determine which smartphone use motives were associated with PSU; and (b) examine the potential indirect and moderating effects of motives in the relationship of psychosocial factors with PSU. We identified 44 studies suitable for inclusion in our systematic review. There was extensive heterogeneity in smartphone use motives measures across the studies, including 55 different labels applied to individual motives dimensions. Categorisation of these motives based on their definitions and item content identified seven motives that were broadly assessed across the included studies. Motives which reflected smartphone use for mood regulation, enhancement, self-identity/conformity, passing time, socialising, and safety were generally positively associated with PSU. There were indirect effects of depression, anxiety, and transdiagnostic factors linked to both psychopathologies on PSU via motives, particularly those reflecting mood regulation. Stress and anxiety variously interacted with pass-time, social, and a composite of enhancement and mood regulation motives to predict PSU. However, the heterogeneity in the measurement of smartphone use motives made it difficult to determine which motives were most robustly associated with PSU. This highlights the need for a valid and comprehensive smartphone use motives measure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims: Smartphones have been so widely adopted that many consider them essential for modern life. However, some people use their phone excessively, which can cause functional impairment or harm, termed problematic smartphone use (PSU). Smartphone use motives may help explain why users engage in general smartphone use and PSU, but existing measures may not capture certain motives which research suggests are important to smartphone use. To address this, across two studies, we constructed and validated a Motives for Smartphone Use Questionnaire (MSUQ) among young adults., Methods and Results: In Study 1, the Delphi method was used, whereby engagement with a panel of 23 international academic experts resulted in a pool of 62 smartphone use motives items that measure 11 proposed motives. In Study 2, the 62 items were administered to 680 young adults aged 18-25 years (Mage = 22.50, SD = 2.16). Results from exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses found that the MSUQ has a seven-factor structure, assessing smartphone use to cope, pass time, socialize, obtain social comfort, feel safe, fulfil social obligations, and seek information. These motives differentially influenced PSU and smartphone usage., Conclusions: The MSUQ is a valid measure of motives for smartphone use. It was developed specifically for smartphone use and it includes motives not captured in prior measures.