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Aggregate matching efficiency (AME) is constructed and endogenized for assessing driving forces behind U.S. unemployment fluctuations. Working with AME sidesteps the problematic orthogonal assumptions on sources of mismatch in the previous studies. Matching efficiency and labor supply shocks, which capture potential variations in structural factors, are identified in a time‐varying structural vector autoregression. Empirical results suggest that the bulk of U.S. unemployment fluctuations is cyclical rather than structural. Meanwhile, the contribution of aggregate shocks to unemployment is substantially time‐varying. In particular, the surge of unemployment rate during the Great Recession is mainly resulting from a shortfall in aggregate demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In 2019, Colombian public universities had a suspension of activities that lasted more than four months and affected their academic life and emotional life, for this reason it is proposed through the analysis of Burnout Syndrome to analyze the level of anxiety in these young people. university students. Objectives: We sought to validate the stress levels through the dimensions of academic attrition in the students of these higher education centers. Methods: We review the studies carried out on the subject, in which it was evidenced that they focused on measuring the dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and lack of personal fulfillment at work, which are proposed in the 1981 study by Maslach and Jackson. This article takes up this methodology and presents the results of 276 applied surveys, which were examined by factor analysis on the items considered from the Maslach-Burnout survey. Results: The results allow to validate the presence of the syndrome in the students and the effectiveness of the questionnaire, showing a higher level of exhaustion compared to the other dimensions considered in the syndrome. Conclusions: These results allow decisions to be made in the future about possible suspensions of the academic load that significantly affect young people and impact their mental health. Introdução: Em 2019, as universidades públicas colombianas tiveram uma suspensão de atividades que durou mais de quatro meses e afetou sua vida acadêmica e emocional, por isso se propõe através da análise da Síndrome de Burnout analisar o nível de ansiedade nestes jovens pessoas estudantes universitários. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unemployment is generally defined as the sum of those who have the power and purpose to work and who have not been able to find a job despite seeking a job for the last 4 weeks due to whether current wage is working or not. In order for an individual to be considered unemployed, he / she must be able to work, not work anywhere and have to work. Unemployment rate is the total workable rate of the workforce who cannot find a job. The current size of the unemployment rate is a good indicator of finding employment. There may be differences in unemployment among demographic groups. Vacant job refers to the working days requested by the employer. Structural unemployment is a type of unemployment that occurs when the number of individuals seeking current wage jobs in the labor market is greater than the number of vacant jobs. In this study, the comparison of vacancy and unemployment according to occupational groups will be made for the period 2007-2018 and TURKSTAT Labor Force statistics and İŞKUR's job vacancy and unemployment statistics will be utilized. The unemployment emerging in Turkey, labor skills, professions, sectors and geographical distribution in terms of the issues that will be examined test for a match with the structure of labor demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The aim of this paper is the development of an integrated framework, based on environmental input-output analysis, for optimizing the economic structure of an economy. The restructuring process is approached as a constraint optimization problem where the optimized variables are the elements of the matrix of domestic technical coefficients. A method for determining the optimal level of the productive linkages of an economy in order to maximize its output with the minimal greenhouse gas emissions the possible is suggested. The proposed methodology is able to join both environmental and economic policy targets, in the form of predefined constraints. The objective function, which is going to be minimized, expresses the greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) intensity or GHG emissions per unit of output. A particle swarm algorithm is employed for the solution of the optimization problem. An illustrative application to the Greek economy was carried out. The experimental results revealed that if the Greek economy will apply policies for boosting the sectors of high and medium-high R&D intensity, then the greenhouse gas emission per unit of gross domestic product of Greece would be reduced. Furthermore, the promotion of high and medium-high R&D intensity sectors is connected with an important improvement of the production linkages to a wide range of sectors, highlighting the important spillover effect of the suggested restructuring process. Highlights • An economic restructuring framework based on input-output analysis is introduced. • The matrix of technical coefficients is optimized by using a particle swarm optimizer. • The optimized economic structure has minimum greenhouse gas emissions intensity. • A demonstrative application to the Greek economy is provided. • The results highlight the sectors of the economy that need refining, quantitatively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the impacts of economic growth on the actual/general, cyclical and structural unemployment are analyzed empirically. In the study conducted using data for the 2000-2016 period of Turkey's economy Autoregressive Distributed Lag model (ARDL Model) is used. According to the results, there is an inverse relationship between economic growth and the cyclical and actual/general unemployment rate, and a direct relationship between structural unemployment. In other words, economic growth causes cyclical and actual unemployment to decrease but increases structural unemployment. As a result, the Okun Law is invalid when structural unemployment is taken into account, while it is valid in other types of unemployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the determinants of the European Commission’s estimates of the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU) for 14 European countries during 1985–2012. The NAIRU is a poor proxy for ‘structural unemployment’. Labor market institutions – employment protection legislation, union density, tax wedge, minimum wages – underperform in explaining the NAIRU, while cyclical variables – capital accumulation and boom-bust patterns in housing markets – play an important role. This finding is policy-relevant since the NAIRU is used to compute potential output and structural budget balances and, hence, has a direct impact on scope and evaluation of fiscal policies in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The persistence of regional unemployment disparities in South Africa has led to geographically imbalanced development. The advent of 4IR has initiated new ways in which big data can be analysed in a spatial context. Since the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development aims at reducing unemployment, this paper will use Twitter data in conjunction with traditional statistics to provide spatial analysis on the topic. Structural unemployment refers to the inability of the economy, due to structural imbalances, to provide employment for the total labour force. In an attempt to quantify this tendency spatially, investigations will be done at a local municipality level (N=213). To supplement the statistics, social media sentiment analysis from Twitter will be used to provide valuable insights into public opinions and perceptions on poverty, unemployment and related themes, in South Africa. By analysing social media content pertaining to unemployment and job prospects, the study will identify spatial patterns in sentiment that reflect the prevailing attitudes and emotions surrounding structural unemployment in various regions of South Africa. Notably, the sentiment analysis will classify the sentiment of each post as positive, negative, or neutral, enabling the identification of prevailing sentiments. This mixed-method approach will enhance the research output. The quantitative data originate from Global Insight and will include variables like unemployment, employment sector, education level and poverty, among others. A correlation coefficient analysis will be undertaken to identify the spatial concentration of unemployment and poverty, if any. Furthermore, regional trends of structural breaks will be identified by considering the percentage of people employed in the nine official sectors (agriculture, mining, manufacturing, electricity, construction, finance, trade, transport and community services) between 1997 and 2020. Case studies of six municipalities will be undertaken to get a more detailed understanding of temporal change and the selection of municipalities is based on the results of spatial factor analysis. The persistence of regional unemployment disparities usually has two origins: the first is that it is based on slow or weak labour market equilibrating mechanisms and the second option is due to the structural equilibrium phenomenon. It is expected that the results will show patterns of structural breaks in municipalities where employment patterns deviated from the national trend over time. Employment in agriculture has been on a downward trend, while employment in the finance sector slightly increased and then decreased again following global economic effects. The research will highlight policy implications for local economic growth interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the Austrian Beveridge curve as well as the Beveridge curves for different economic sectors in Austria over the period from 2008 onwards. We find significant outward shifts of the Beveridge curves in eight of the 21 sectors of the economy. We further analyze what factors have contributed to this change. Our results suggest that a significant part of the currently rising unemployment in Austria may be attributed to structural changes. Those structural changes mainly affect the four large sectors: construction, wholesale, transportation, and accommodation and food service activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main goal of this paper is to argue for the necessity and significance of studying the distributional employment impacts of renewable and new energy development (RNE). Based on the comprehensive review of the methodology and conclusions of existing literatures, this paper builds up an extended input–output model to study RNE’s distributional employment impacts on gender and personnel structure. The case study of China׳s power sector in this paper affirmed earlier doubts that RNE development will indeed aggravate the gender inequality problem and add to the level of mismatch between the structure of labor demand and supply, causing structural unemployment problems. The quantitative analysis in this paper outlined here implies that from 2011 to 2020 the development of RNE will bring about 7 million employment gains, but only 81.8% of which can be realized due to the mismatch problem. The study of China may alert other countries to be less-optimistic about RNE’s employment impacts and reaffirm the need to carry out the distributional employment impacts analysis. This paper concludes with policy suggestions such as providing suitable training and equal promotion opportunities for women, offering courses and vocational trainings to RNE-related majors, in order to reduce the structural unemployment problem and further speed up the development of RNE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a companion to the Lilien (lilien) and modified Lilien commands for computing relative indices in Stata. In this article, we illustrate the main features of the commands with an application to the structural determinants of regional unemployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whenever unemployment stays high for an extended period, it is common to see analyses, statements, and rebuttals about the extent to which the high unemployment is structural, not cyclical. This essay views the Beveridge curve pattern of unemployment and vacancy rates and the related matching function as proxies for the functioning of the labor market and explores issues in that proxy relationship that complicate such analyses. Also discussed is the concept of mismatch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the structural unemployment that characterizes persons with disabilities from a social, economic and political perspective. As long as persons with disabilities continue to be defined as unable to perform productive work, they will remain condemned to poverty, begging, dependency and a life without projects to fulfill. With reference to the history and struggles of the disability rights movement in Argentina, it focuses on understanding this struggle as a collective endeavor, aimed at establishing the right to earn a living by working, i.e. via paid productive employment. It concludes by positing that in the long run, social inclusion can only be realized in a society that is organized so that each individual can contribute what he or she is capable of, with the necessary means put at his and her disposal; and that in return, his and her needs (as they may evolve over time) will be met. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study on the issues complicating interpretation of shifts in Beveridge curve to resolve the policy debate on whether structural or cyclical reason cause the high unemployment rate in the U.S. It says that the magnitudes of structural and cyclical unemployment were examined. It states that the study found considerable evidence that high unemployment in the U.S. economy is accounted by cyclical unemployment.

This study discusses ideological effects on media content. According to Hallin (1986), while journalists may serve as defenders and/or sanctifiers in a sphere of consensus, they may also expose those unrelated to politics to harsh criticism, blame and even exclude them from any fair discussion driving them into a sphere of deviance. Antagonism between soldiers and the ruling power in Turkey usually takes place via the media. The discourse of the national press in recent years has illustrated the confrontation of hegemonic military and the civil elites. While the power of Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) in Turkey remained indisputable and even untouchable until recently, with the news discourse, this institution was drawn into a lengthy conflict. Power of the press regarding shifts of hegemonic powers in a society is inevitable. In this study, analysis of news about TAF was carried out relying on the discourse theory of Laclau and Mouffe. More specifically, we focused on the "Sledgehammer Coup Plan" as was published in the Turkish daily, Taraf, on Jan 20, 2010. The study presents two significant points: (1) it describes how ideological structuring was shaped via media discourses, and (2) it interprets how conflicts between the military and the civilian powers occurred in Turkey. Bringing together the hegemonic, political and economic structures via discourse, this study suggests that hegemonic ideology of powers can be changed through the media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The changes in the capital took place in the 1990s with the structural unemployment, and later with the restructured productivity. This article discusses the transformations in the workforce via the aesthetic art source (cinema), involving the experience developed by the workman who narrate the origins of their involvement in the workers movement, in addition to the uncovering/revelation of their lives in the 21st Century. As a result, the film was therefore taken to be the proximity between art and science, in order to allow the comprehension of the capitalistic division within the workforce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines whether housing tenure and regional differences in housing affordability have an impact on labour mobility. This relationship is important for understanding the sources of structural unemployment and impediments to economic growth. Using two sample surveys from the Czech Republic, this research reveals that at the individual level housing tenure is the most powerful factor determining willingness to change residence for employment reasons. A time-series regression analysis reveals that the impact of housing affordability on observed interregional migration patterns is relatively weak and that this effect is concentrated among the highly educated seeking employment in the capital, Prague. These results demonstrate that housing tenure has a significant impact on labour migration plans in case of unemployment and that the dynamic impact of regional differences in housing affordability on labour mobility is concentrated within the most highly skilled segment of the labour force. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article analyzes the Venezuelan labor situation, taking as reference the years from 1999 to the present. For a better comprehension of this subject by those who are not familiar with Venezuelan history, an introductory chapter is included in order to present the historic and socio-economical context in which the current process and its antecedents occur. It starts from the premise that the subject of employment is a fundamental problem in contemporary Venezuelan happenings. Simultaneously, unemployment, underemployment and informality are mentioned as long-range structural phenomena, within the framework of a growing economy. Likewise, the study approaches the topics of social security, representativeness of the national labor union movement, and the situation of the labor relations model that prevailed in the country over the last decades. The social policy of the State on the subject of employment is described based on cases of the "missions" and cooperatives. The opinions of qualified academic informants, private sector representatives, and union leaders, complement the characterization outlined about the country. In the end, a reflection about the perspectives of Venezuelan society is made. One aspect that stands out is the need to discuss the status of the labor relations model (s) that could be adopted for the next years in Venezuela. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By focusing on the Chinese official discourse of "neo-industrialisation" published on the People's Daily, this article not only provides an understanding of the Chinese official understanding of information society and information economy, but also foregrounds the issue of information in China's conflicted reintegration with global capitalism.This article argues that, deviant from the Western discourse of post-industrialism, the neo-industrialisation strategy promotes a coordinated effort to both "industrialise" and "informationise" the economy. Moreover, pragmatic concerns with China's realities, including unfinished industrialisation, structural unemployment and the domestic demands for all-around national development, all find echoes in the discourse of neo-industrialisation, By providing a political-economic contextualisation of this discourse, this article also strives to provide an insight of the most recent plan of forming a "super" Ministry of Industry and Information Technology in the Chinese government, which was announced in Match 2008. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The representation of complex phenomena in economic systems is partly limited to linear analysis. The formalization from the so called "complex systems" seems to provide an adequate framework for the formalization of situations closer to economic reality. One of the simpler complex systems is the synergetic, which considers pheno- mena of self-organization, in which eigenvalues of perturbations around a critical parameter are classified as stable or unstable. According to the relative values of the unstable parameters the system reorganizes attaining a new solution path or returns to the original one. In this work the basic model of Solow is reinterpreted under this type of mod- elization, in order to incorporate the possibility of unemployment. The search is focused in finding when a technological change can cause temporary or structural unemployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we represent structural unemployment by relating observed unemployment to wage inflation. An estimated series for the non-accelerating wage rate of unemployment (NAWRU) shows that the unemployment gap between observed unemployment and the structural rate provides a good reflection of prevailing aggregate demand conditions and indicates that our estimated NAWRU series is a good measure of the Irish structural unemployment situation. The estimated NAWRU was at a high level throughout the 1980s and declined over time such that any excess labour slack was dissipated by the mid-1990s. Between 1994 and 2001 we report that the observed unemployment rate was below our estimated NAWRU indicating that the substantial inflationary pressure on wages was justified for this period. Very recently, the gap between our estimate of the structural rate and observed rates of unemployment is not very substantial and reflects a healthier situation vis-à-vis wage inflationary pressures which are supported by inward migration and productivity increases becoming embedded in our economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth labour market integration differs considerably across European countries. There are marked cross-national differences not only in terms of youth unemployment, but also in terms of the quality of the jobs in which young people are employed. This article explains cross-national patterns of labour market entry among school-leavers in 11 European countries. It is hypothesized that national differences in employment protection legislation and the vocational specificity of the education system, in addition to the structural effect of macro-economic conditions, attribute to the observed cross-national variation in youth labour market integration. On the basis of the European Union LFS 2000 ad hoc module on school-to-work transitions, the speed, the quality and the stability of the labour market entry process are analysed. The results indicate that national institutional differences regarding employment protection legislation and the vocational specificity of the education system do indeed affect cross-national differences in labour market entry patterns. However, the impact of both institutional features varies considerably by level of education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers the implications of current notions of the learning city. It argues that popular neoliberal ideologies create an environment in which lifelong learners strive for the learning city as an end product, both in production and for consumption, rather than embrace it as a living, social context. The rhetoric of the knowledge economy ideologues is very narrowly construed but at the same time politically powerful and, despite clearly documented effects of globalized capitalism such as massive deskilling, tremendous structural unemployment and vast (and rapidly growing) urban slums, the dominant economistic paradigms and power structures make critical reconsideration very difficult. Some adult educators, like those in Hume City, Australia, or of the Shikshantar Institute in Udaipur, India, who hold a wider, critical view of lifelong learning, are promoting the learning city not as an end but as a social process of participation and negotiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the historical origins of structural unemployment in Tanzania. The emergence of structural unemployment was caused by labor over-supply in the middle decades of the 20th century. The deepening impact of colonialism, a youthful population, and a shift in late-colonial labor policy towards stabilization were some of the factors that contributed to the rise of structural unemployment. The panicked response of the incoming African regime to issue is also described.

The article presents a reprint of the article "Britain: A Case for Development?" edited by Richard Jolly and Robin Luckham, which appeared in the Volume 9, Number 2 1977 of the "IDS Bulletin." Structural unemployment, inflation and balance of payments difficulties are cited as some of the similarities between Great Britain and developing countries.

Abstract: This paper combines population dynamics and macroeconomics in a world with structural unemployment. A general demo-economic framework, including age structure, is used to investigate the dynamical role played by fertility heterogeneity between employed and unemployed individuals. Several noteworthy dynamic features arise. First, under Malthusian conditions, i.e., when the fertility of unemployed individuals always lies below that of wage earners, the interaction between heterogeneous fertility and age structure may lead to sustained oscillations depending on the age patterns of entry in the labour market. This is an example of stable Malthusian cycle. Second, under post-Malthusian conditions, both transient and robust chaotic phenomena may appear. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article examines two sets of factors that impact the education of young African American males: social and structural challenges and cultural expectations. Social factors impinging on achievement include poverty, unemployment, education, fatherlessness, violence, racism, and incarceration. Among these, unemployment and incarcerations resulting from the "war on drugs" play a prominent role in curtailing achievement. Negative stereotypes can effect the way young Black males perceive themselves and their own opportunities and capabilities. The authors call for an understanding of the structural influences on young Black males in creating an educational approach to address these problems and list possible interventions.

During the Great Depression, many dislocated workers became farm operators. Building on classic studies of economic distress in the South in the 1930s, I examine this reaction to joblessness, focusing on racial differences in the upper and lower parts of the region. I address the question, “Did southern blacks become farm operators to seek shelter from stagnant labor markets?” An answer is needed because, in spite of reports that blacks in the South tended to leave farming in those places where jobs were most scarce, a noted scholar of the era has argued persuasively that displaced blacks in the region were absorbed into the agriculture sector. A multivariate analysis of Census data from 1930–1935 finds no evidence that jobless black southerners, similar to their white counterparts, became farm operators in response to labor market distress. I conclude that these results provide a more complete account of farming during the Great Depression and underscore the importance of studying the racial and geographical diversity of the South. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the relationship between individual differences of unemployed to explain the structural or long lasting unemployment. The results revealed that individual differences influence attitudes and motivation towards work. It also indicated the need for a psychosocial intervention to successfully fight against long lasting unemployment and unequal opportunities to get a job.

The article presents a perspective regarding the four conditional factors of social quality pertaining to socio-economic structures, policies and quality of life in Greece. In this context, the researchers highlight some distinctive features of Greek society that is essential to their analysis. The European Network on Indicators of Social Quality project explored these factors and promote socio-economic security, social structures, social cohesion and social empowerment. The country's participation in the various networks of co-ordinated European strategies will promote significant developments.

The perception of structural unemployment – summarised in the notion of ‘Eurosclerosis’– became almost hegemonic during the 1990s. Policy makers all over Europe tried, by means of supply-side policies, to counteract the lack of incentives in the developed European welfare states, the lack of qualification on the post-industrial labour markets and the personal decay due to long-term unemployment. However, based on the critical case of Denmark, this article challenges the perception of structural unemployment and suggests an alternative business cycle/barrier perception. At the macro level it is difficult to explain the Danish decline in unemployment from 1994 to 2000 within the structure perception. The lack of explanatory power of the structure perception is further highlighted in micro-level analyses conducted on a panel study of long-term unemployed. Based on the unemployed's own assessments, we find no indications of supply-side problems. These results are supported by analyses of actual labour market integration of the long-term unemployed in the period between 1994 and 1999, which show that education level and previous unemployment had no noteworthy influence on labour market integration, whereas age had a decisive influence. These surprising results further undermine the perception of structural unemployment and the supply-side policies rooted in this ‘mistaken’ problem definition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summarizes available estimates of the vacancy rate in the Canadian labor market. Significance of vacancy rate in estimating structural unemployment; Range of vacancies in the high technology sector; Shift in the relationship between the Help-Wanted Index and the unemployment rate.

Focuses on the impact of labor policies on structural unemployment and considers the results in the Canadian context. Implication of the variations in unemployment rates across the OECD countries; Effect of payroll taxes, labor regulations and union contracts on the cost of labor; Relationship between work incentives and welfare programs; Basis of the explanation for Canada's unemployment record.

Introduces a series of articles on the implications of the increase in structural unemployment in Canada. Effect of aggregate demand growth on the unemployment rate; Dependence of sustainable reductions in unemployment on labor markets; Importance of labor market policies in relation to unemployment and economic growth; Definition of structural unemployment.

In recent years a plethora of scientific articles and books have tended to stress that since the 1970s the prevailing economic system has undergone a radical transformation and suffered continuous periods of strain. Complete theories on production change and the emergence of a new economic structure have been built around factors like advances in technology, information technology, the greater flexibility of the production system or the of the economy. It has been claimed that the flexibilization of the productive system and the globalization of the economy have shaken the traditional bases of locational analysis. The spatial spectrum of the location of firms has expanded enormously owing to the fact that the basic factors which determine the placement of economic activity-capital, raw materials and labour- have become more mobile than ever before. Technological advances and transportation improvements have rendered physical distances less important, and organizational changes within firms have contributed to these trends.

We replicated Bechhofer and Elliott's (1978) study of Edinburgh shopkeepers to answer two important questions. First, have political attitudes and behaviour changed since 1969-1970 when Bechhofer and Elliott collected their data? Second are the Bechhofer and Elliott findings applicable only to the one city where their study was conducted? We collected our data in 1978 from the cities of Bradford and Leicester and the borough of Ealing, in greater London. Our replication supports Bechhofer and Elliott's findings in three of the four areas investigated. First. small shopkeepers are consistent Conservatives, although they are not terribly enthusiastic in their support. Second, shopkeepers are recruited from a wide range of social origins, especially from the lower non-manual strata and skilled manual workers. Third, small shopkeepers are highly individualistic politically, being strongly against big government and anti-union. Fourth, although Bechhofer and Elliott found that shopkeepers' optimistic beliefs in the possibilities of social promotion were apparently fulfilled in Edinburgh, such was not the case in Bradford. Ealing, or Leicester. The difference between our results and theirs may stem from differences in city economic structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through an examination of the social changes in contemporary Chinese society (mid-1960 until present), it is argued that concepts of beauty and fashion are defined by the dominant political ideology. One reason is that ideology defines the social norms and legitimizes the economic structure. It is also hypothesized that individuals have the ability to modify their sense of beauty and fashion within prevailing social norms. Results from the content analysis of China Reconstructs and the 1994 ELLE (PRC) readership survey support these hypotheses. Beauty and fashion under Maoism were uniformed, and creativity suppressed. This was accomplished by the centralized, state-run economic structure. With the change in the infrastructure, i.e. the economic reform in the 1980s, creativity in fashion has been revitalized. Much of this change could also be attributed to the joint-ventures between China and the developed countries, as well as the creativity of the Chinese. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rise in unemployment after 1970 has reinforced the issue of structural versus cyclical unemployment. Structural unemployment can be distinguished into Demand, Cost and Search Structuralism. The importance of the last-mentioned type, which involves structural changes in search behaviour of individuals and changes in the structure of the labour market, is investigated for Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Belgium. After a view of labour market data 1955-1975 and their characteristics, an analytical framework is introduced which underlies the analysis of the labour market in terms of unemployment and vacancy rates. Cyclical and structural shifts of the relationship between these rates are studied separately. For all the countries a structural shift, pointing to Search Structuralism, is observed after 1967. In combination with frictional unemployment, it seems to amount to about 50-60% of total unemployment in 1975. The results suggest that macroeconomic policies aiming at the stimulation of demand and/or the reduction of costs, are considerably constrained in their potential effects on unemployment with the present functioning of the labour market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the issue of social citizenship in new democracies and the difficulties in reviving citizens' rights in Hungary. The ex-socialist countries of central-eastern Europe are going through a historical process of societal transformation. The process has several fundamental components. Of these, most analysts put the emphasis on the switch from a centrally planned to a market economy, and on the transition from dictatorship to democracy. In the case of the economy, the deliberate, intentionally taken steps aiming at the reconstruction of a market economy include the transformation of property relations which reintroduce the civil right to private ownership and to free contracts; the withdrawal of the state from many forms of direct intervention in the economy; and the "restructuring" of the economy, that is the dismantling of an ideologically distorted economic structure and its obsolete technology. In case of Hungary it was clear from the start that the unavoidable transformation of the economy would entail huge social costs. Thus it was known and expected that unemployment would be unavoidable in a genuine labor market.

It is commonly recognized that social exclusion is a dynamic process, but it operates within well-established political, social and economic structures. A breadth of empirical data is used to explore various dimensions of social exclusion and inclusion, including Australian, Canadian and European data. While all the articles explore different aspects of social exclusion, common themes emerge. All authors note the multi-dimensional nature of social exclusion. The importance of social networks in providing information and advice to the integration of young people is also identified. Common to all articles though is the firm belief that national governments should be centrally involved in tackling social exclusion. As currently formulated, the extent of government commitment to rural development programmes is questionable. These programmes tend to be short-term with insecure and limited funding. At any rate, the capacity of local partnerships to address issues of social exclusion is restricted. The responsibility for economic, social and civic inclusion of citizens rests primarily with national governments.

Deals with the factors to consider in measuring and defining full employment. Representation of the alternative measures of unemployment; Factor that keeps frictional unemployment to a minimum; Percentage rate of unemployment, non-employment and workless households in Great Britain from 1979 to 1998.