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Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture can impair balance performance, particularly during cognitive motor dual-tasks, This study aimed to determine the effects of various modalities of cognitive load (working memory, and visuospatial and executive function) on postural control parameters in individuals with ACL injury. Twenty-seven ACL-injured and 27 healthy participants were evaluated doing different cognitive tasks (silent backward counting. Benton's judgment of line orientation. and Stroop color-word test) while standing on a rigid surface or a foam. Each task was repeated three times and then averaged. Center of pressure variables used to measure postural performance included sway area and sway velocity in anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions, Cognitive performance was also assessed by calculating errors and the score of cognitive tasks. A mixed model analysis of variance for center of pressure parameters indicated that patients had more sways than the healthy group. The interaction of group by postural difficulty by cognitive tasks was statistically significant for cognitive errors (p < .01), and patients with ACL injury indicated more cognitive errors compared to healthy controls while standing on the foam. The main effect of cognitive task was statistically significant for all postural parameters, representing reduced postural sways in both groups with all cognitive tasks. However, ACL-injured patients showed more cognitive errors in difficult postural conditions, suggesting that individuals with ACL injury may prioritize postural control over cognitive task accuracy and adopt the posture-first strategy to maintain balance under dual-task conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acute exercise performed immediately after motor skill practice can promote motor retention. Though this effect has been largely reported using simple tasks, whether more complex motor tasks would equally benefit from acute exercise is unknown. The aim of the present study was thus to evaluate the effects of a single high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on the retention of complex motor skills and to compare the results when the motor task involved required executive functions (EF) and when it did not (NEF). Sixty young adults performed a golf-putting task in which target squares were designated either by a fixed number (NEF group) or by Stroop effect (EF group). Performance was assessed by measuring accuracy in getting the golf ball into the target square. Immediately after, half of each group either performed a 13-minute running HIIT session or rested. Seven days later, the same golf-putting task was repeated. Both exercise subgroups showed significant improvements in accuracy after one week, with the EF-exercise subgroup improving more than the NEF-exercise subgroup. These findings suggest that acute exercise can facilitate complex motor skill retention, while these effects may be modulated by the degree of EF involved in the execution of the motor task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A positive association between pubertal maturity as assessed by skeletal development, and specific cognitive abilities has recently been demonstrated in a cohort of adolescent girls. The current study explores the impact of chronological age and relative pubertal maturity on executive function within the same cohort. Relative maturity, determined by the difference between chronological age and skeletal age, establishes the criteria for enrolling participants into average, advanced, or delayed relative maturity subgroups. Performance is assessed using the Numerical Stroop test and analyzed across four conditions, each with varying task requirements related to inhibition and task switching. The effects of chronological age and relative maturity on executive functions are tested by a linear mixed model. Within the examined age-range (12–15 y), a more protracted development was found for inhibition as compared to switching. In line with the previous findings, the results reveal significant development in executive performance as a function of chronological age, and relative maturity also demonstrated significant effect on the development of executing functioning. The significant interaction effect between Chronological Age and Relative Maturity suggests that the degree of interplay between these factors varies across the examined age range. Specifically, relative maturity may have a more noticeable impact on EF functioning in middle adolescence compared to early adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies have demonstrated a possible association between cognitive impairments and traumatic upper limb injuries. This study aims to track the cognitive changes in individuals with such injuries. In this longitudinal study, 36 participants with traumatic upper limb injuries and 36 uninjured participants were enrolled. Cognitive functions were assessed using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) and the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) over a period of 6 months, with evaluations conducted on three occasions: 1 month (T1), 3 months (T2), and 6 months (T3). The results revealed that participants with nerve injuries exhibited significantly lower RAVLT scores overall and at each time point (Overall: Wald χ2 = 7.99, P < .05; T1: Wald χ2 = 7.61, P < .05; T2: Wald χ2 = 5.95, P < .05; T3: Wald χ2 = 5.76, P < .05). In contrast, no significant impairment in RAVLT performance was observed in participants without nerve injuries. Additionally, the SCWT showed no significant differences between injured and uninjured participants over the six-month period (P > .05). In conclusion, traumatic nerve injuries to the upper limbs negatively affect memory, and this impairment does not spontaneously recover within six months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Background Introduction Methods Results or findings Discussion Conclusion and implications for nursing and/or health policy This study aims to examine the influence of single and double‐shift work schedules on hand function and cognitive capacities, specifically working memory, attention, and response time in nurses.Shift work, particularly in extended formats, is known to affect various physical and cognitive functions critical to nursing duties. Understanding these impacts is vital for managing nurse schedules to minimize health risks and maximize performance.With an increase in demands on healthcare systems, nurses often endure prolonged working hours, which may impair their cognitive and manual abilities, thereby affecting patient care quality.This study involved 45 nurses aged 20–40 years from shift‐oriented units providing direct patient care. Hand function was assessed using the Nine‐Hole Peg Test (9‐HPT). Cognitive functions such as working memory, attention, and response time were evaluated using the digit span task and the Stroop test, respectively. Two‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for statistical analysis, assessing the interactions of time and shift type, with a significance level set at p < 0.05.The results revealed significant changes in all tested variables between pre‐ and post‐shift assessments and between single and double‐shift conditions. Notably, the double‐shift work significantly exacerbated declines in all measured functions.These findings suggest that double shifts may intensify the deterioration of essential nursing skills, potentially compromising patient care.This study underscores the detrimental effects of extended shift work on nurses' cognitive and manual functions. These insights should guide healthcare institutions in revising nurse scheduling practices to safeguard their well‐being and maintain high standards of patient care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies examining whether stimulus valence affects cognitive processing and motor responses yield mixed results, possibly due to treating negative words as a homogeneous category. Words related to pain may hold distinct status because of their relevance to survival. Thus, they offer a unique opportunity to investigate semantic influences on cognitive processing. This study aims to determine if words related to physical and social pain elicit stronger aversion than general negative words by assessing the Affective Compatibility Effect in implicit and explicit tasks. In Experiment 1, 35 participants performed a lexical decision task on 60 positive words and 60 negative words, of which 20 not related to pain, 20 related to physical pain, and 20 related to social pain. Participants held down the central key of a keyboard and released it to press a key far from the screen (avoidance condition) or close to the screen (approach condition) for words. In Experiment 2, 43 participants performed a valence evaluation task on the same words. They held down the central key and released it to press a key close to the screen for positive words and a key far from the screen for negative words (congruent condition), or the opposite (incongruent condition). In Experiment 1, we found faster RTs for social pain-related words compared to other categories. We also found faster RTs in the approach condition than in the avoidance condition, regardless of whether valence or semantics were considered as independent variables. In Experiment 2, we found faster RTs in the congruent condition than in the incongruent condition when semantics was considered as independent variable. We also found an interaction valence*condition, with faster RTs for negative words in the congruent condition than in the incongruent condition when valence was considered as independent variable. Our findings suggest that, notwithstanding pain-related words do not affect aversive behaviors compared to negative, pain-unrelated words, they are processed faster when conveying social pain. This supports the hypothesis that the cognitive system differentiates and responds congruently not only based on general semantic categories, like pain, but also possibly based on nuances within it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Stroop task was used to investigate differences in cognitive function between Long COVID (LC), Myalgic Encephalomyelitis / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) and healthy control subjects. Methods: Subjects viewed four color words or neutral (XXXX) stimuli with the same (congruent) or different color ink (incongruent). Cognitive conflict was inferred from response times for pairings of prestimuli and subsequent stimuli. Overall effects were assessed by univariate analysis with time courses determined for binned response times. Results: LC and ME/CFS had significantly longer response times than controls indicating cognitive dysfunction. Initial response times were ranked LC > ME > HC, and decreased according to power functions. At the end of the task (900s), times were ranked LC = ME > HC. Response times were significantly slower for stimuli following an incongruent prestimulus. Time series for Stroop effect, facilitation, interference, surprise index and practice power law parameters were generally similar in LC, ME/CFS and HC suggesting comparable patterns for recruitment of cognitive resources. The prestimulus data were analyzed and generated positive Stroop and interference effects that were distinct from stimulus effects. Conclusion: LC and ME/CFS have global slowing of response times that cannot be overcome by practice suggesting impaired communications between network nodes during problem solving. Analysis of matched prestimulus – stimulus effects adds a new dimension for understanding cognitive conflict. Brief Summary: Cognitive dysfunction in Long COVID and ME/CFS was demonstrated using the Stroop task which found global slowing of response times and limitations of practice effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid aging of the global population underscores the need to employ innovative strategies, such as creative aging, to address the accompanying opportunities and challenges. This study investigated the effects of a thematic art program on cognitive abilities and depressive symptoms in older adults. An 8-week art program was developed. Participants attended weekly 2-hour sessions that focuses on connections with life experiences and the link between music and color. The study recruited 40 older adults aged between 60 and 90 years. Among the recruited older adults, 31 completed the entire program. The adults were recruited from community care centers in Northern Taiwan. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, Stroop Color and Word Test, and Geriatric Depression Scale were used to assess cognitive and depressive symptoms. Participatory program observations and follow-up interviews were conducted to cross-check the results. Significantly improved cognitive abilities (in the overall cognitive function, visuospatial/executive, and orientation domains), executive function, and selective attention were observed. Additionally, the participants reported significantly reduced depressive symptoms. The intervention maintained and improved the physical and mental health of the participants. The empirical results provide a practical reference for developing art programs for older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I argue that results in perception science do not support the claim that there is semantic perception or that typical, unreflective utterance comprehension is a perceptual process. Phenomena discussed include evidence-insensitivity, the Stroop effect, pop-out, and adaptation – as well as how these phenomena might relate to the function, format, and structure of perceptual representations. An emphasis is placed on non-inferential transitions from perceptual to conceptual representations, which are important for debates about the admissible contents of perception more generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working memory is crucial for higher cognitive functions in humans and is a focus in cognitive rehabilitation. Compared to conventional working memory training methods, VR-based training provides a more immersive experience with realistic scenarios, offering enhanced transferability to daily life. However, existing VR-based training methods often focus on basic cognitive tasks, underutilize VR's realism, and rely heavily on subjective assessment methods. In this paper, we introduce a VR Sandbox for working memory training and evaluation, MEM-Box, which simulates everyday life scenarios and routines and adaptively adjusts task difficulty based on user performance. We conducted a training experiment utilizing the MEM-Box and compared it with a control group undergoing PC-based training. The results of the Stroop test indicate that both groups demonstrated improvements in working memory abilities, with MEM-Box training showing greater efficacy. Physiological data confirmed the effectiveness of the MEM-Box, as we observed lower HRV and SDNN. Furthermore, the results of the frequency-domain analysis indicate higher sympathetic nervous system activity (LFpower and LF/HF) during MEM-Box training, which is related to the higher sense of presence in VR. These metrics pave the way for building adaptive VR systems based on physiological data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Subjective cognitive decline (SCD) refers to self-reported cognitive decline in individuals with normal performance on standardized cognitive tests. Understanding the factors predicting progression from SCD to mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is crucial, as approximately 14% of SCD cases progress to dementia and about 27% develop MCI over four years. Objective: This study aims to identify neuropsychological predictors of progression from SCD to MCI, focusing on cognitive domains assessed through neuropsychological tests. Methods: This retrospective study at Seoul National University Bundang Hospital analyzed a cohort of 107 patients diagnosed with SCD through comprehensive assessment. Patients underwent annual neuropsychological testing, including the Digit Span Test, Boston Naming Test, Rey Complex Figure Test, Seoul Verbal Learning Test, and Stroop Test. Results: Annually, these patients underwent neuropsychological tests over a 5-year period; 24 progressed to MCI per NIA-AA criteria. Key predictors of MCI progression included age, ischemic heart disease, and scores from the forward digit span, delayed recall, and Boston naming tests. Lower scores in delayed recall and Boston naming tests significantly correlated with a higher risk of MCI (p < 0.001). Conclusions: These findings suggest a need for targeted management of memory and language functions to monitor disease progression effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cognitive impairments may be developed post nerve injuries of upper limb. • There is no cognitive impairment post musculoskeletal injuries to upper limb without nerve damage. • Cognitive impairments appear within one month post traumatic upper limb injuries. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between cognitive impairments and traumatic upper limb injuries of the acute phase. A cross-sectional observational study was conducted with three groups: a nerve-injury group, a without nerve injury group, and a control group (uninjured participants). Demographic characteristics (e.g. age, sex, body mass index, and education) and traumatic characteristics (duration since injury, injury side, pain, light touch sensation, hand motor function) were recorded. Short-term memory and executive functions were assessed using Rey Auditory and Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) and Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT, including SIECT and SIECN), respectively. The study comprised 43 participants in the nerve-injury group, 30 participants in the group without nerve injury, and 104 participants in the control group. Generalized linear model was applied to explore the difference of cognitive functions among three groups with impactors. Significantly poorer performance on the RAVLT was observed in the nerve-injury group compared to the other two groups, and lower score of SIECT in nerve-injury group was lower compared to the control group. However, there was no significant difference of SIECN among three groups. In addition, traumatic characteristics did not significantly impact RAVLT and SIECT (p > 0.05) in all injured participants. Traumatic nerve injury to the upper limb appears to be associated with both short-term memory and executive function impairment, whereas musculoskeletal injuries without nerve damage showed no cognitive impairment. Therefore, it is important to monitor cognitive function following upper limb nerve injuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human factors, including the level of cognitive functioning, are the most influential factors in road traffic crashes. Among cognitive abilities, executive functions (EFs) of the brain play a pivotal role in driving performance and outcomes, including crash numbers. The current study was aimed to explore, for the first time, the ability of EF tests to predict success on the official driving tests in applicants of driving license in Iran. We administered a relevant set of commonly used EF tests, including a computerized Stroop test and six tests from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) and the Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS), to 87 healthy new drivers applying for a driver's license (Mage = 25.9 years, SD = 8.2; 43 female). We also administered a series of demographic and psychological questionnaires. The data regarding the participants' official driving tests were extracted from the official records. To determine the relations of the EF tests with success on the driving tests, several correlation and regression analyses were conducted. Most of the EF measures had significant correlations with the road test success, while having no significant relations with the theory test success. Moreover, in our regression analyses, The EF measures predicted success on the official driving road test, but not success on the driving theory test, even after controlling for the effects of previous unlicensed driving experience and stress symptoms. The results demonstrate the predictability of the driving road test success from executive functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Almost all of our everyday activities depend on executive function (EF) skills. In line with the increasing attention to the ecological validation of neuropsychological assessment and intervention methods, this study aimed to explore the ecological validity of a relevant set of widely used EF tests, mostly from well-known paradigms of EF assessment, in predicting driving ability. Ninety-six healthy novice drivers (Mage = 26.2 years, SD = 8.4; 48 female) completed four stages of our data collection including psychological, EF, and driving assessments. For the psychological assessment, validated measures of sensation-seeking, risk-taking, personality traits, ADHD symptoms, depression, anxiety, and stress were administered. For the EF assessment, selected tests from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS: Trail Making, Design Fluency, and Tower) and the Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS: Key Search, Zoo Map, and Modified Six Elements) along with a computerized Stroop test were administered. For the driving assessment, we used a simulated driving test comprising of 14 key dimensions of driving skills. Several correlations and multiple regression analyses were conducted. Significant correlations were found between all the EF measures and driving performance. Moreover, the EF measures predicted the driving ability over and above the effects of previous driving experience and the psychological variables. These results provide supporting evidence for the ecological validity of the EF tests in predicting driving performance. The incorporation of assessment and intervention targeting multiple domains of EF into driving rehabilitation and education programs could be a focus of future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) is the current diagnostic parameter for diagnosing and estimating the severity of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). It is, however, poorly associated with the main clinical symptom of OSA, excessive daytime sleepiness, and with the often-seen cognitive decline among OSA patients. To better evaluate OSA severity, novel hypoxic load parameters have been introduced that consider the duration and depth of oxygen saturation drops associated with apneas or hypopneas. The aim of this paper was to compare novel hypoxic load parameters and traditional OSA parameters to verbal memory and executive function in OSA patients. A total of 207 adults completed a one-night polysomnography at sleep laboratory and two neuropsychological assessments, the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and Stroop test. Results : Simple linear regression analyses were used to evaluate independent associations between each OSA parameter and cognitive performance. Associations were found between immediate recall and arousal index, hypoxia <90 %, average SpO 2 during sleep, and DesSev100+RevSev100. Total recall was associated with all OSA parameters, and no associations were found with the Stroop test. Subsequently, sex, age, and education were included as covariates in multiple linear regression analyses for each OSA parameter and cognitive performance. The main findings of the study were that average SpO 2 during sleep was a significant predictor of total recall (p <.007, β = −.188) with the regression model explaining 21.2 % of performance variation. Average SpO 2 during sleep was also a significant predictor of immediate recall (p <.022, β = −.171) with the regression model explaining 11.4 % of performance variation. Neither traditional OSA parameters nor novel hypoxic load parameters predicted cognitive performance after adjustment for sex, age, and education. The findings validate that the AHI is not an effective indicator of cognitive performance in OSA and suggest that average oxygen saturation during sleep may be the strongest PSG predictor of cognitive decline seen in OSA. The results also underline the importance of considering age when choosing neurocognitive tests, the importance of including more than one test for each cognitive domain as most tests are not pure measures of a single cognitive factor, and the importance of including tests that cover all cognitive domains as OSA is likely to have diffuse cognitive effects. • The currently used diagnostic tool for obstructive sleep apnea, the apnea-hypopnea index, is not associated with verbal memory and executive function. • Novel hypoxic load parameters are not associated with verbal memory or executive function in obstructive sleep apnea. • Average oxygen saturation during sleep is the strongest predictor of verbal memory in obstructive sleep apnea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies have proposed that the automatic activation of naïve concepts, which persist even after learning scientific concepts, must be inhibited to successfully output scientific concepts. This model assumes that individual differences in inhibitory control (IC) within executive functions represent differences in conceptual change. However, the reported correlations between concept conflict and IC tasks are weak, casting doubt on this assumption. This study improves on previous methodologies by focusing on the performance of adult subjects in living and nonliving concept tasks presumed to have successfully achieved conceptual change and quantifying semantic‐level IC through the Stroop interference effect. The results revealed that the correlations between the Stroop interference effect and reaction time (RT) differences between conditions of the concept conflict task, which are assumed to represent the time required to inhibit naïve concepts, were relatively stronger compared with findings reported in previous studies. These findings suggest that individual differences in fluent inhibition of naïve concepts after acquiring scientific concepts align with those in IC, thereby supporting the validity of the inhibition model of naïve concepts. Even after learning a scientific concept (e.g., plants are alive), a previously held naïve concept (e.g., moving objects are alive) remains in a person's brain. This study investigated the characteristics of individuals who can successfully and fluently "suppress" naïve concepts in their brains when required to answer questions about scientific concepts. The results suggested a stronger connection than previously known with the well‐known cognitive ability of inhibitory control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and Objectives: Although the Psychometric Hepatic Encephalopathy Score (PHES) remains the gold standard in diagnosing minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE), its complexity limits its application in clinical practice. While more convenient tests, such as the Stroop test, Quickstroop, and the 1-min animal naming test (ANT-1), have emerged, they haven't been validated in our setting. Our objective was to validate these tests in our population. Patients and Methods: This multicenter, observational, descriptive, and cross-sectional study was conducted in three hospitals in northeastern Mexico. MHE was defined as a PHES <-4. We included patients with cirrhosis aged >15 years without a history of overt hepatic encephalopathy. Data regarding sex, age, education, Child-Pugh/MELD-Na scores, etiology of cirrhosis, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, ascites, and clinically significant portal hypertension was collected. Fisher's exact test, Mann-Whitney U test, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used for statistical analysis. Results: Of the 121 patients included, 35.5 % were diagnosed with MHE. The presence of MHE was significantly associated with education level, years of study, and scores in the Stroop test, Quickstroop, and ANT-1. The AUROC curves were 77.9 %, 74.6 %, and 72.7 % for the Stroop test, Quickstroop, and ANT-1, respectively. The resulting cut-off points were 218.398 (sensitivity: 74 %; specificity: 74 %), 40.535 (sensitivity: 77 %; specificity: 68 %), and <16 animals (sensitivity: 58 %; specificity: 79 %), respectively. Conclusions: These tests are valid diagnostic tools for detecting MHE in our population. Their simpler use and applicability could increase the early diagnosis of MHE and prompt primary prophylaxis initiation for overt hepatic encephalopathy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Cognitive control is a prerequisite for successful, goal-oriented behavior. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is assumed to be a key player in applying cognitive control; however, the neural mechanisms by which this process is accomplished are still unclear. Methods: To further address this question, an audiovisual Stroop task was used, comprising simultaneously presented pictures and spoken names of actors and politicians. Depending on the task block, participants had to indicate whether they saw the face or heard the name of a politician or an actor (visual vs. auditory blocks). In congruent trials, both stimuli (visual and auditory) belonged to the same response category (actor or politician); in incongruent trials, they belonged to different categories. During this task, activity in sensory target regions was measured via functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and electroencephalography (EEG), respectively. Specifically, fNIRS was used to monitor activity levels within the auditory cortex, while the EEG-based eventrelated potential of the N170 was considered as a marker of FFA (fusiform face area) involvement. Additionally, we assessed the effects of inhibitory thetaburst stimulation--a specific protocol based on repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)--over the right DLPFC. Non-invasive brain stimulation is one of the few means to draw causal conclusions in human neuroscience. In this case, rTMS was used to temporarily inhibit the right DLPFC as a presumed key player in solving Stroop conflicts in one of two measurement sessions; then, effects were examined on behavioral measures as well as neurophysiological signals reflecting task-related activity in the frontal lobes and sensory cortices. Results: The results indicate a central role of the DLPFC in the implementation of cognitive control in terms of a suppression of distracting sensory input in both the auditory cortex and visual system (FFA) in high-conflict situations. Behavioral data confirm a reduced Stroop effect following previous incongruent trials ("Gratton effect") that was only accomplished with an intact DLPFC (i.e., following placebo stimulation). Discussion: Because non-invasive brain stimulation is uniquely suited to causally test neuroscientific hypotheses in humans, these data give important insights into some of the mechanisms by which the DLPFC establishes conflict resolution across different sensory modalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Chocolate is a popular food that may affect the activity of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a single dose of dark or milk chocolate on ANS cardiac control during rest and mental stress induced by the Stroop test (ST). Methods: Healthy participants, divided into DARK or MILK chocolate groups, ingested corresponding type of chocolate (1 g/kg body weight). They underwent measurement of ANS during relaxation and ST before and 2 h after chocolate consumption. ANS control was assessed by determination of heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability using parameters related to complex autonomic modulation (TP, SDNN) or primary vagal modulation (HFnu, RMSSD). Results: HR was always increased during ST in both groups. Relaxation HR values after chocolate ingestion were higher only in the DARK chocolate group. During ST, values of TP, SDNN and HFnu decreased before and after chocolate ingestion in the DARK group, but only before chocolate ingestion in the MILK group. RMSSD values decreased during ST before and after chocolate ingestion in both groups. Relaxation TP, RMSSD and HFnu values after chocolate ingestion were lower in the DARK but not in the MILK group. Conclusion: The results suggest that even a single dose of milk chocolate attenuates changes in ANS cardiac control induced by mental stress, whereas a single dose of dark chocolate has an activating effect on the heart via modification of ANS cardiac control at rest. Different levels of sugars and cocoa biologically active compounds in the two types of chocolate could explain the observed effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: This study aimed to investigate the effects of the two pre-ovulatory and mid-luteal phases of the menstrual cycle on cognitive function, as well as possible mediators of metabolism and salivary cortisol, at rest and after an aerobic exercise session. Study design: Twelve active young unmarried women aged 22–30 years volunteered to participate in the study. The participants performed a 20-min exercise session on a cycle ergometer at 60–70% of their reserve heart rate twice, during the follicular (pre-ovulation: days 7–10) and luteal (mid-luteal: days 21–24) phases of the menstrual cycle. Saliva samples were collected to measure cortisol. Fat utilization, respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and energy expenditure (during exercise) were measured using a spiroergometer. Cognitive function was assessed using the Stroop test. Cognitive function and cortisol levels were measured before and after each exercise session. Results: The findings of this study indicated no significant differences in variables during the resting follicular and luteal phases. Cortisol levels and cognitive function were increased after exercise compared with before exercise in both the follicular and luteal phases. Cortisol and fat utilization after exercise were significantly higher in the follicular phase than in the luteal phase. There were no significant differences between the follicular and luteal phasesregarding the effects of exercise on cognitive function, energy expenditure, and RER. Conclusion: In general, the follicular and luteal phases of menstruation may not affect cognitive function in response to a single aerobic exercise session, although they change some metabolic factors and cortisol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractContextObjectivesMethodsResultsConclusionsRecent research and the majority of neuropsychological testing manuals emphasize the importance of establishing a proper relationship between the evaluator and the evaluatee. However, there is relatively little empirical research on this point.The objective of this study was to operationalize empathy in the evaluator/evaluatee relationship during neuropsychological assessment. The subsequent aim was to determine the impact of this empathy on the evaluator/evaluatee relationship and cognitive performance.The participants, designated as “evaluatees”, were randomly assigned to complete a brief neuropsychological test in either an empathic (N = 47) or neutral condition (N = 47). The neuropsychological tests included the Stroop task from the GREFEX battery, the Letter-Number Sequencing from the WAIS-IV, and the d2 test of attention. Following the tests, participants completed scales indicating perceived relationship with the evaluator, lived experience of the test, and sociodemographic information.The manipulation check indicated that it was possible to manipulate empathy. Evaluators demonstrating empathy led to a better evaluator/evaluatee relationship. However, the results regarding cognitive performance were less consistent.In conclusion, there is a need for improvement in clinical neuropsychological practice with regard to relational competencies during testing. This study proposes benchmarks to make the evaluator’s empathy perceptible. This technique has not been shown to have a consistent effect on cognitive performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals suffering from obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and schizophrenia (SCZ) frequently exhibit symptoms of cognitive disassociations, which are linked to poor functional integration among brain regions. The loss of functional integration can be assessed using graph metrics computed from functional connectivity matrices (FCMs) derived from neuroimaging data. A healthy brain at rest is known to exhibit small-world features with high clustering coefficients and shorter path lengths in contrast to random networks. The aim of this study was to compare the small-world properties of prefrontal cortical functional networks of healthy subjects with OCD and SCZ patient groups by use of hemodynamic data obtained with functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). 13 healthy subjects and 47 patients who were clinically diagnosed with either OCD (N = 21) or SCZ (N = 26) completed a Stroop test while their prefrontal cortex (PFC) hemodynamics were monitored with fNIRS. The Stroop test had a block design consisting of neutral, congruent and incongruent stimuli. For each subject and stimuli type, FCMs were derived separately which were then used to compute small world features that included (i) global efficiency (GE), (ii) clustering coefficient (CC), (iii) modularity (Q), and (iv) small-world parameter (σ ). Small-world features of patients exhibited random networks which were indicated by higher GE and lower CC values when compared to healthy controls, implying a higher neuronal operational cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objective: Exposure to mental stress in everyday life leads to several diseases that deteriorate the quality of people's lives, and hinders the development of society. The development of mobile technology and wearable devices has made it possible to monitor the mental stress in real time. This study aims to develop a single-channel EEG-based framework to identify the multiple types of mental stress. Methods: Four different tasks (i.e., arithmetic operations, successive subtraction, Stroop color-word test, and number memory) combining time pressure with negative feedback were designed to induce mental stress. The EEG data of 21 participants was recorded and a total of 338 multi-domain features, i.e., time domain, frequency domain, nonlinear and time–frequency domain, were extracted from five sub-frequency bands and full frequency band. After a one-way analysis of variance, recursive feature elimination and support vector machine were combined to classify the stress level of the participants. Results: For all four tasks, 67, 72, 20, and 74 features were statistically different, and they covered all the feature domains. Similarly, the highest classification accuracy of 97.78%, 97.50%, 95.00%, and 100% were achieved while combining features from all domains. Furthermore, the delta, theta, alpha, and full frequency band were more effective in quantifying the stress levels. Conclusion: Our proposed framework validates the effectiveness of a single-channel EEG in detecting mental stress and offers great promise for its application in clinical and portable devices in everyday life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: We aimed to explore the association between visit‐to‐visit systolic blood pressure variability (BPV) and cognitive function in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Methods: We performed a post hoc analysis of the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Memory in Diabetes (ACCORD‐MIND) substudy. A total of 2867 diabetes patients with ≥3 BP measurements between the 4‐ and 20‐month visits were included. Visit‐to‐visit systolic BPV was calculated. Cognitive decline was defined as a Mini‐Mental State Exam (MMSE), Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), or Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) score greater than 1 standard deviation (SD) below the baseline mean, or a Stroop test score more than 1 SD above the baseline mean. The associations of systolic BPV with risks of cognitive decline were examined using Cox proportional hazards models, and with changes in brain magnetic resonance imaging parameters were evaluated using mixed models. Results: The risk of cognitive decline defined by the DSST score (but not by other scores) increased significantly with systolic BPV quartiles (p for trend = 0.008), and there was a 55% increased risk for BPV quartile 4 versus quartile 1 (hazard ratio = 1.55, 95% confidence interval 1.10–2.19). Furthermore, a positive correlation was observed between systolic BPV and change in white matter lesion volume (β = 0.07, 95% CI 0.01–0.13). Conclusions: A greater visit‐to‐visit systolic BPV was significantly associated with an increased risk of cognitive decline measured by DSST and an increase in white matter lesion volume in patients with type 2 diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Research about the impact of acute stress on inhibitory control remains a contentious topic, with no consensus reached thus far. This study aims to investigate the effects of acute stress on an individual's inhibitory control abilities and to elucidate the underlying neural mechanisms by analyzing resting state electroencephalogram (EEG) data. Methods: We recruited 32 male college students through participant recruitment information to undergo within-subject experiments under stress and non-stress conditions. Physiological indicators (cortisol and heart rate), self-report questionnaires, and behavioral data from the Stroop task were collected before, during, and after the experiment. Additionally, a five-minute eyes closed resting state EEG data collection was conducted during the Stroop task before. Results: (1) Acute stress led to a reduction in the conflict effect during the participants' Stroop task in individuals. (2) Stress resulted in an increase in the power of the beta in the resting state EEG. (3) Acute stress caused an increase in the duration of class D and an increase in the transition probabilities from classes C and B to class D in the microstates of the resting state EEG. (4) Acute stress leads to an increase in beta power values in individuals' resting state EEGs, which is significantly negatively correlated with the reduction of the conflict effect in the Stroop task under stress. Conclusions: Acute stress can enhance individuals' attentional level, thereby promoting inhibitory control performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB), which is used to assess executive function, has been translated into several languages and shown to be valid and reliable. However, the validity and reliability of the Japanese version in patients with stroke are unknown. This study aimed to investigate the validity and reliability of the Japanese version of the FAB in patients with stroke. Methods: The Japanese version of the FAB for dementia was modified and evaluated in 52 patients with stroke. FAB measurements were obtained twice over a 10-day period. Convergent validity was assessed using the Stroop Color Word Test (SCWT) and the Trail Making Test (TMT) part B. Internal consistency was measured using Cronbach's alpha (Cα). Test-retest evaluations were performed using intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC (2.1)] measurements, and limits of agreement (LOA) were calculated using the total FAB score. Results: The mean total FAB score was 13.4 ± 2.8 points, the ICC (2.1) was 0.856, and Cα was 0.92. The total FAB score was correlated with SCWT scores for parts I through IV (r = 0.70 to 0.77) and the TMT score for part B (ρ = −0.53). The LOA were −1.7 to 2.9 points. Conclusions: The Japanese version of the FAB had higher validity and reliability in patients with stroke. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies found that bodily states have an impact on divergent thinking, but it remains to be seen how generalizable this effect could be, how exactly it depends on cognitive control, and whether similar effects can be found on convergent thinking. To address these questions, we examined the bodily state effect on divergent thinking, convergent thinking, and cognitive control in two experiments. In Experiment 1, participants performed the Alternate Uses Task, the Remote Associates Task, and an auditory Stroop task under one of the three bodily states: sitting, standing, or roaming. In Experiment 2, participants completed the three tasks while standing and while roaming. Results showed that bodily state had no significant effect on divergent thinking and the Stroop effect, while roaming shorten the reaction times (Experiment 1) and increased accuracy (Experiment 2) comparing with sitting or standing in the convergent thinking task. Bayesian analysis provided strong or moderately strong evidence for the null hypothesis for these effects. Taken together, the present experiments showed no stable bodily state effect on divergent thinking or convergent thinking and Stroop effect. Possible explanations for the discrepancy between the current results and those reported in previous studies were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has been associated with neurocognitive impairments. The present study examined the effect of treatment on neurocognitive performance in OCD and the relationship between neurocognitive change and symptom change. The present study also examined polymorphisms influencing brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) as predictors of neurocognitive change. Method: Treatment-seeking participants with OCD (N = 125) were assigned to cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) alone, CBT combined with regular physical exercise, exercise alone, or a waitlist control group. Measures of OCD symptom severity and a neuropsychological battery were completed pre- and post-treatment. Blood or saliva samples were used to genotype the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism. Results: OCD symptom severity was not cross-sectionally associated with neurocognitive performance. Several neurocognitive measures improved over treatment. The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism was significantly associated with worse performance on the Stroop test but did not significantly predict change in neurocognitive performance over time. Limitations: Limitations include lack of a healthy control group. Conclusion: Improvement in neurocognitive performance corresponded to symptomatic improvement and was independent of the BDNF Val66Met genotype. • Several neurocognitive measures improved following CBT for OCD. • Val66met polymorphism significantly associated with worse Stroop test performance. • Val66Met polymorphism did not predict neurocognitive performance over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sleep is the most important yet least understood function of the brain. It is seen that students usually get lesser duration of sleep, due to academic and social demands. In our study, we are trying to use relatively short-duration tasks, which are software-based and can be easily used in a clinical setting for screening purpose, for the assessment of attention in individuals with poor sleep quality. Aims and Objectives: The aim of this study was to compare the perceived stress levels in students based on the quality of sleep and to compare the attention in students based on the quality of sleep. Materials and Methods: Eighty-four participants were divided into good and bad sleep quality based on the Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI) scores and their perceived stress scores were obtained. All of them were subjected to smartphonebased cognitive function testing using color word and word color Stroop test. Results: Eighty-four subjects were recruited for the study from the Bidar Institute of Medical Sciences, Bidar, of which 34 (40%) were in the good sleep group and 50 (60%) in the bad sleep group. The median PSQI score in the group with bad sleep quality was found to be significantly higher than the median PSQI scores of the group with good sleep. The median word color Stroop score in the good sleep quality was found to be significantly higher than the score of the bad sleep group. Similarly, the median color word Stroop scores were significantly higher in the good sleep group than that of the bad sleep quality group. Conclusion: Sleep quality seems to increase the levels of perceived stress in students. Sleep affects the attention of the subjects in a negative way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the popularization of informal learning styles in universities, building overheads in hot and humid regions of China has become one of the main spaces for informal learning among college students in the region due to their improved thermal environmental conditions relative to outdoor spaces. However, the effects of thermal environmental changes on students' learning performance on the overhead floors are not yet clear. Therefore, we recruited volunteers to conduct several tests, including the Stroop test, the Go/No-go test, the 2-back test, and the 3-back test, in the overhead space of a building in September and October. This was followed by a questionnaire survey, which yielded a total of 500 samples. Learning performance was quantified as a total of accuracy, response time, and final performance metrics. The results show that in hot and humid regions of China, the thermal perception of college students in the overhead was mainly related to Ta and Tmrt, and the relationship with Va was not significant; the maximum acceptable physiological equivalent temperature of college students in the overhead space was 30.3 °C; the change in the thermal environment had an effect on the learning performance of the four tests, and under neutral to slightly warm temperature (22.1–31.2 °C physiological equivalent temperature), the learning performance of the perceptually oriented and short-term memory task types increased by 2.5% and 1.1%, and the relationship between thermal environment and learning performance was not significant when the short-term memory task became more difficult. Attention-oriented learning had a relationship between the spatial thermal environment and learning performance in overhead spaces in hot and humid regions and suggests a basis for future overhead retrofitting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electroencephalography (EEG) microstates are used to study cognitive processes and brain disease-related changes. However, dysfunctional patterns of microstate dynamics in Alzheimer's disease (AD) remain uncertain. To investigate microstate changes in AD using EEG and assess their association with cognitive function and pathological changes in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). We enrolled 56 patients with AD and 38 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HC). All participants underwent various neuropsychological assessments and resting-state EEG recordings. Patients with AD also underwent CSF examinations to assess biomarkers related to the disease. Stepwise regression was used to analyze the relationship between changes in microstate patterns and CSF biomarkers. Receiver operating characteristics analysis was used to assess the potential of these microstate patterns as diagnostic predictors for AD. Compared with HC, patients with AD exhibited longer durations of microstates C and D, along with a decreased occurrence of microstate B. These microstate pattern changes were associated with Stroop Color Word Test and Activities of Daily Living scale scores (all P < 0.05). Mean duration, occurrences of microstate B, and mean occurrence were correlated with CSF Aβ 1–42 levels, while duration of microstate C was correlated with CSF Aβ 1–40 levels in AD (all P < 0.05). EEG microstates are used to predict AD classification with moderate accuracy. Changes in EEG microstate patterns in patients with AD correlate with cognition and disease severity, relate to Aβ deposition, and may be useful predictors for disease classification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background: The Stroop task was used to investigate differences in cognitive function between Long COVID (LC), Myalgic Encephalomyelitis / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) and healthy control subjects. Methods: Subjects viewed four color words or neutral (XXXX) stimuli with the same (congruent) or different color ink (incongruent). Cognitive conflict was inferred from response times for pairings of prestimuli and subsequent stimuli. Overall effects were assessed by univariate analysis with time courses determined for binned response times. Results: LC and ME/CFS had significantly longer response times than controls indicating cognitive dysfunction. Initial response times were ranked LC > ME > HC, and decreased according to power functions. At the end of the task (900s), times were ranked LC = ME > HC. Response times were significantly slower for stimuli following an incongruent prestimulus. Time series for Stroop effect, facilitation, interference, surprise index and practice power law parameters were generally similar in LC, ME/CFS and HC suggesting comparable patterns for recruitment of cognitive resources. The prestimulus data were analyzed and generated positive Stroop and interference effects that were distinct from stimulus effects. Conclusion: LC and ME/CFS have global slowing of response times that cannot be overcome by practice suggesting impaired communications between network nodes during problem solving. Analysis of matched prestimulus – stimulus effects adds a new dimension for understanding cognitive conflict. Brief Summary: Cognitive dysfunction in Long COVID and ME/CFS was demonstrated using the Stroop task which found global slowing of response times and limitations of practice effects.

Depression in adolescence is common worldwide, with the burden being highest in low- and middle-income countries. This study assessed the efficacy of in-person Memory Specificity Training (MeST) and computerized MeST (c-MeST) as cognitive training programs aimed at addressing depression among Iranian adolescents. A secondary aim was to evaluate the efficacy of MeST and c-MeST on autobiographical memory specificity, emotion regulation and cognitive control. Ninety Iranian male adolescents (aged 13–18 years) with depression were randomly assigned to three groups; MeST group (n = 30), c-MeST group (n = 30) and the non-active control group (n = 30). Participants completed the Beck Depression Inventory-II, Autobiographical Memory Test, Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Stroop Color and Word Test. The groups underwent either MeST and c-MeST. All the assessments were re-conducted after the intervention (post-intervention) and at 1-month post-intervention (follow-up). The in-person MeST group exhibited significantly higher autobiographical memory specificity at post-intervention and follow-up compared to the c-MeST group. Both groups demonstrated significantly lower levels of depression at post-intervention and follow-up. Both groups showed improvements in emotion regulation and cognitive control, which were found to mediate improvements in depression symptomatology. c-MeST and MeST appear promising brief interventions for the treatment of depression among adolescents in Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Food is a vital human need, and the human visual system is finely tuned to detect and respond to food cues in the environment. The omnipresence of food cues across various settings has been linked to the prevalence of obesity in susceptible populations. However, the influence of the post-prandial state on visual attention to food stimuli remains poorly understood. This study aimed to elucidate how a 12 hour fast affects visual attention to food and non-food stimuli in healthy, non-obese individuals. Methods: Visual attention was assessed by measuring the total duration of visual fixations on stimuli presented on a computer screen, using a screen-based eye tracker (Tobii X2-60). Participants were divided into two groups: those who had fasted for 12 hours and those tested within two hours after consuming breakfast (satiated state). Additionally, performance on the Food Stroop task and electrodermal activity (EDA) responses were measured to evaluate attentional interference and physiological arousal, respectively. Salivary samples were also collected to assess levels of alpha-amylase and cortisol. Results: Fasted participants exhibited a progressive decline in visual attention toward food stimuli compared to satiated individuals, reflecting a satiated state. This effect was independent of the palatability of the depicted food items and was not observed with stimuli representing non-food items. The Food Stroop task revealed no differences between fasting and satiated participants, indicating that the presence of food-related stimuli does not differentially impact attentional interference under varying hunger states. Moreover, no significant variations were observed in EDA responses across participant groups and stimulus types, suggesting that the modulation of visual attention to food cues by hunger is independent of physiological arousal. Interestingly, satiated subjects exhibited higher levels of salivary alpha-amylase, which was inversely related to their subjective hunger ratings. No differences in salivary cortisol levels were found between groups. Discussion: The findings indicate a novel influence of mild hunger on the processing of visual food cues, independent of physiological arousal. The decline in visual attention to food stimuli in fasted individuals suggests that satiety modulates visual processing. The lack of differences in attentional interference and physiological arousal between fasting and satiated states further supports the notion that visual attention to food cues is primarily driven by hunger-related mechanisms rather than stress. Additionally, the inverse relationship between salivary alpha-amylase levels and hunger ratings implies that alpha-amylase may serve as a marker of satiety rather than stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our research aimed to identify interrelationships between performance in the Stroop test and emotion regulation and academic achievement of students. The present research method was descriptive of correlation type. The statistical population in this study included all students of Mashhad in Iran. Using the cluster sampling method and within each cluster using random sampling method, 120 students were recruited from three different educational levels. In this study, the Stroop test, Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ-P), and GPA of the students were used to measure the research variables. To analyze the data, a multivariate regression statistical model was used to determine the relationship between the desired variables. The analysis shows that there is a significant relationship between academic achievement and performance on the Stroop test and emotion regulation (p < 0.05). It is included that training based on improving executive functions and emotion regulation can be used to improve students' academic status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sympathetic and blood pressure (BP) hyper-reactivity to stress may contribute to increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in adults with major depressive disorder (MDD); however, whether this is evident in young adults with MDD without comorbid disease remains unclear. We hypothesized that acute stress-induced increases in muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) and BP would be exaggerated in young adults with MDD compared to healthy non-depressed young adults (HA) and that, in adults with MDD, greater symptom severity would be positively related to MSNA and BP reactivity. In 28 HA (17 female) and 39 young adults with MDD of mild-to-moderate severity (unmedicated; 31 female), MSNA (microneurography) and beat-to-beat BP (finger photoplethysmography) were measured at rest and during the cold pressor test (CPT) and Stroop color word test (SCWT). There were no group differences in resting MSNA (p = 0.24). Neither MSNA nor BP reactivity to either the CPT [MSNA: ∆24 ± 10 HA vs. ∆21 ± 11 bursts/min MDD, p = 0.67; mean arterial pressure (MAP): ∆22 ± 7 HA vs. ∆21 ± 10 mmHg MDD, p = 0.46)] or the SCWT (MSNA: ∆-4 ± 6 HA vs. ∆-5 ± 8 bursts/min MDD, p = 0.99; MAP: ∆7 ± 8 HA vs ∆9 ± 5 mmHg MDD; p = 0.82) were different between groups. In adults with MDD, symptom severity predicted MAP reactivity to the CPT (β = 0.78, SE = 0.26, p = 0.006), but not MSNA (p = 0.42). The mild-to-moderate symptom severity reflects only part of the MDD spectrum. Neither sympathetic nor BP stress reactivity are exaggerated in young adults with MDD; however, greater symptom severity may amplify BP reactivity to stress, thereby increasing CVD risk. • Greater blood pressure (BP) reactivity to stress predicts cardiovascular risk. • BP reactivity to stress is not exaggerated in young adults with depression. • Symptom severity predicted BP reactivity to stress in young adults with depression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by both motor and nonmotor symptoms, including depression, which significantly impacts the quality of life of affected individuals. This study aims to investigate the real-world effectiveness and safety of duloxetine in treating comorbid depression in patients with Parkinson's disease and to compare its outcomes with traditional treatment approaches. Methods: This study included adult patients diagnosed with Parkinson's disease combined with depression from December 2020 to December 2023. Based on the use of duloxetine, the cohort was divided into a traditional treatment group and a duloxetine group (traditional treatment combined with duloxetine). Patients with incomplete medical records, concurrent antidepressant therapy, or major psychiatric or neurological disorders were excluded. Retrospective data, including demographic information, treatment adherence, and various assessment scores, were collected from medical records by trained research staff. Results: In total, 106 patients were analyzed, with 50 patients receiving traditional treatment and 56 patients receiving duloxetine. The duloxetine group exhibited significantly lower scores than the traditional treatment group in the Unified PD Rating Scale (p = 0.015), Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (p = 0.013), Beck Depression Inventory (p = 0.031), Parkinson's disease Questionnaire-39 (p = 0.006), and Clinical Global Impression-Improvement (p < 0.001) scores. In motor function assessment, the duloxetine group demonstrated improvements in kinetic tremor scores (p = 0.017), gait speed (p < 0.001), Timed Up and Go Test performance (p < 0.001), dyskinesia severity (p = 0.017), and rigidity (p = 0.019) compared to the traditional treatment group. Additionally, the duloxetine group exhibited better cognitive function across various assessments, including the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (p = 0.024), Stroop Color-Word Test (p = 0.048), and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (p = 0.024). Conclusion: Duloxetine is associated with superior efficacy in improving motor and non-motor symptoms, overall clinical status, and cognitive function. These findings support the potential utility of duloxetine as a comprehensive treatment option for comorbid depression in Parkinson's disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the inclusion of the Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder (CSBD) in the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases, emotional and cognitive impairments related to CSBD remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the behavioral and neuronal effects of emotional interference on cognition among CSBD patients. Thirty heterosexual males with CSBD and matched healthy controls (HC) were studied with the Emotional Stroop Task using 5 categories of emotionally arousing words (sex-related, positive, fear-related, negative, neutral) during functional magnetic imaging. At the behavioral level, we found the main effect of the condition: sex-related words evoked a stronger Stroop effect than other conditions. At the neural level, we found a significant group effect. Among CSBD patients processing of sex-related words was related to increased activity in the right putamen, right thalamus, hippocampi, and left pulvinar, when compared to HC. We also found a negative correlation between neuronal activation and time spent on sexual activity during the week preceding study and numerous group differences in brain regions connected to the emotional and motivational processing of sexually explicit material, correlating with CSBD symptoms. Behavioral results indicate a specific attentional bias toward sex-related stimuli in both groups, while neural data uncovered stronger reactivity to sex-related words in CSBD compared to HC. This reactivity is related to CSBD symptoms and provides evidence for the interference of sex-related stimuli with cognition. Such results are firmly in line with the Incentive Salience Theory and conceptualizing CSBD as a behavioral addiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Aims: Minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE) represents the mildest form of hepatic encephalopathy. MHE has been associated with impairment of quality of life and job performance, and is a major cause of premature retiring in cirrhotic patients. However, MHE is usually overlooked by most physicians, due to its asymptomatic nature. We aim to present our experience with the EncephalApp Stroop Test for diagnosing MHE in cirrhotic patients. We also want to establish if Stroop test performance correlates with age, educational level, liver disease severity (as assessed by the MELD and Child-Pugh scores), duration of disease, previous episodes of overt hepatic encephalopathy, and other relevant clinical or laboratory parameters. Methods: A cross-sectional observational single-center study, in which 100 adult patients diagnosed with liver cirrhosis were evaluated for the presence of MHE by using the EncephalApp Stroop Test. In parallel, 45 healthy adult controls without liver cirrhosis were recruited and tested under the same conditions as the patients. Results: There were no age-related differences between the two groups (p=0.6). Stroop test performance of the controls (143.1 ± 20.8 seconds) was significantly better than that of the patients (171.9 ± 33.3 seconds) (p<0.0001). Stroop test results correlated with the MELD (R=0.28, p=0.005) and Child-Pugh scores (R=0.2, p=0.04). There was a positive correlation between Stroop test results and age in patients (R=0.45, p<0.0001) and controls (R=0.75, p<0.0001). Stroop test performance was not influenced by the duration of liver disease (p=0.4) or prior episodes of overt hepatic encephalopathy (p=0.25). Gender and level of education did not have an impact on Stroop test results. Alcoholic liver disease, diabetes mellitus, hyperglycemia, anemia and hyponatremia were associated with poorer performances. Conclusions: EncephalApp Stroop Test proved to be a quick and simple method for diagnosing minimal hepatic encephalopathy in the hospital setting. Test performance was influenced primarily by age, but also by liver disease severity, anemia, hyponatremia and hyperglycemia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: The study aimed at examining the effectiveness of cognitive-motor dual-task and single-task cognitive training on executive and attention functions in participants over 65 years of age. Methods: The study comprised 68 participants. They were randomly assigned to dual-task cognitive-motor training (DTT), single-task cognitive training (STT) or a control group (C). The training program in all groups encompassed 4 weeks and consisted of three, 30-min meetings a week. Specialized software was designed for the purposes of the study. Both before and after the training, the cognitive functioning was assessed using: Color Trials Test, Ruff Figural Fluency Test, Wisconsin Sorting Card Test, Digit Span, Verbal Fluency Test, Stroop Color-Word Test. Results: After the cognitive-motor training, improvement was achieved in the control and inhibition of reactions. Moreover, after the cognitive training, improvements in abstract thinking and categorization were reported. Conclusion: Despite the small sample limitation, the preliminary result shows each form of the training supports a different aspect of executive functions but does not contribute to the improvement in attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Dysglycaemia accelerates cognitive decline. Intensive glucose control may help delay or prevent cognitive function decline (CFD). We aimed to determine how patient characteristics influence the effect of intensive glucose control [glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) <6.0%] on delaying CFD in people with type 2 diabetes. Research design and methods: In this post‐hoc analysis of 2977 type 2 diabetes participants from the ACCORD MIND trial, we applied the causal forest and causal tree algorithms to identify the effect modifier of intensive glucose control in delaying CFD from 68 variables (demographics, disease history, medications, vitals and baseline biomarkers). The exposure was intensive versus standard glucose control (HbA1c <6.0% vs. 7.0%‐7.9%). The main outcome was cognitive function changes from baseline to the 40th month follow‐up, which were evaluated using the digit symbol substitution test, Rey auditory verbal learning test, mini‐mental state examination and Stroop test. We used Cohen's d, a measure of standardized difference, to quantify the effect size of intensive glucose control on delaying CFD. Results: Among all the baseline characteristics, renal function was the most significant effect modifier. Participants with urinary albumin levels <0.4 mg/dl [absolute function change (AFC): 0.51 in mini‐mental state examination, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.04, 0.98, Cohen's d: 0.25] had slower CFD with intensive glucose control. Patients with preserved renal function (estimated glomerular filtration rate between 60 and 90 ml/min/1.73 m2) were associated with small benefits (AFC: 1.28 in Stroop, 95% CI: 0.28, 2.27, Cohen's d: 0.12) when undergoing intensive glucose control. Conversely, participants with an estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 (AFC: −0.57 in the Rey auditory verbal learning test, 95% CI: −1.09, −0.05, Cohen's d: −0.30) exhibited faster CFD when undergoing intensive glucose control. Participants who were <60 years old showed a significant benefit from intensive glucose control in delaying CFD (AFC: 1.08 in the digit symbol substitution test, 95% CI: 0.06, 2.10, Cohen's d: 0.13). All p <.05. Conclusions: Our findings linked renal function with the benefits of intensive glucose control in delaying CFD, informing personalized HbA1c goals for those with diabetes and at risk of CFD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the immediate and sustained effects of acute exercise modalities and durations on inhibitory control including response inhibition and interference control. Fifty-nine young adults participated in three exercise interventions and a reading intervention. Three exercise interventions consisted of a 20-min moderate intensity continuous exercise (MICE), a 20-min high intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and a 10-min HIIE. Using a colour-word Stroop task and a Go/no-go task, interference control and response inhibition were assessed before the intervention (t0), immediately after the intervention (t1), and then at 30 min (t2) and 60 min (t3) after the intervention. During the Stroop task, the response time (RT) was significantly shorter for both congruent and incongruent trials immediately after 20-min HIIE compared to that before exercise, and this reduction lasted for 60 min. The improvement in the Stroop task can be maintained for 30 min after 20-min MICE. In addition, the 10-min HIIE intervention immediately reduced the RT of the incongruent trials. However, the Go/no-go results showed no significant change in task performance after the four interventions. The above findings suggest that when compared to MICE for the same exercise time, improvements in interference control were sustained longer and better following 20-min HIIE. In addition, HIIE for 20-min rather than shorter duration was best for both basic information processing and interference control performance. A duration of 20-min HIIE may be a more effective way to improve interference control. Neither HIIE nor MICE had any effect on response inhibition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated language and executive functions (EF) in people with transcortical motor aphasia (TMA) and Broca’s aphasia (BA). Participants included 19 patients with TMA, 19 patients with BA, and 25 healthy controls. Verbal Fluency tests, Stroop tests and Trail-Making tests were administered to all participants, and the Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination (BDAE) was administered to participants with aphasia. Results showed that (1) both groups of patients with aphasia had poorer performance on Verbal Fluency tests, Stroop tests and Trail-Making tests than healthy controls; (2) participants with BA had superior performance on Stroop tests and Trail-Making tests, but not on Verbal Fluency tests, than participants with TMA, and (2) the performance on Verbal Fluency tests, Stroop tests and Trail-Making was significantly correlated with the performance on BDAE for participants with TMA, but not for participants with BA. These results suggest that EF deficits are present in both patients with TMA and those with BA. They also show that the relationship between EF deficits and language impairments in people with aphasia might depend on the type of aphasia, aspects of language, and the components of EF measured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Women are at a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD), and the decline in estrogens post-menopause is thought of as a factor increasing this risk. Estradiol (E2) is important in supporting cholinergic neuronal integrity, and cholinergic functioning may be negatively impacted following the loss of E2 post-menopause. The use of exogenous E2 has been observed to enhance cholinergically mediated cognitive performance in healthy post-menopausal women, which indicates a potentially protective mechanism. However, E2 is often co-administered with progestin or progesterone to prevent endometrial proliferation. Progesterone/progestins have previously been shown to have a detrimental effect on E2-mediated biological and cognitive effects mediated by cholinergic systems in preclinical models, therefore the present study aimed to assess whether progesterone would modify the effect of E2 to influence cognition during cholinergic blockade. Methods: Twenty participants completed 3-months of oral E2 treatment with micronized progesterone (mPRO) or with placebo (PLC) in a repeated measures within-subjects crossover design, in which they also completed five anticholinergic challenge days per hormone treatment condition. During the challenge participants were administered low or high doses of the nicotinic cholinergic antagonist mecamylamine, the muscarinic cholinergic antagonist scopolamine, or placebo. Following drug administration participants performed cognitive tests sensitive to cholinergic tone, assessing attention, episodic memory, and working memory. Results: Significant decrements were found on some tasks when participants were taking E2+mPRO compared to E2 alone. Specifically, under more challenging task conditions and larger anticholinergic doses, participants showed poorer performance on the Critical Flicker Fusion task and the Stroop test and responded more conservatively on the N-back working memory task. Other tasks showed no differences between treatments under cholinergic blockade. Discussion: The findings show that mPRO when taken in concert with E2, was detrimental to effortful cognitive performance, in the presence of cholinergic blockade. These results are important for assessing the impact of combined postmenopausal hormone treatment on cognitive performance that is dependent on cholinergic functioning after menopause. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessments of stress can be performed using physiological signals, such as electroencephalograms (EEGs) and galvanic skin response (GSR). Commercialized systems that are used to detect stress with EEGs require a controlled environment with many channels, which prohibits their daily use. Fortunately, there is a rise in the utilization of wearable devices for stress monitoring, offering more flexibility. In this paper, we developed a wearable monitoring system that integrates both EEGs and GSR. The novelty of our proposed device is that it only requires one channel to acquire both physiological signals. Through sensor fusion, we achieved an improved accuracy, lower cost, and improved ease of use. We tested the proposed system experimentally on twenty human subjects. We estimated the power spectrum of the EEG signals and utilized five machine learning classifiers to differentiate between two levels of mental stress. Furthermore, we investigated the optimum electrode location on the scalp when using only one channel. Our results demonstrate the system's capability to classify two levels of mental stress with a maximum accuracy of 70.3% when using EEGs alone and 84.6% when using fused EEG and GSR data. This paper shows that stress detection is reliable using only one channel on the prefrontal and ventrolateral prefrontal regions of the brain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Declined cognitive function is commonly complained during the menopausal transition and continues afterward. Combining different exercises potentially leads to greater improvements in cognitive function, however, evidence of the benefits that accrue with multicomponent exercise training, specifically for postmenopausal women is limited. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of short-term multicomponent exercise training programs on executive function in postmenopausal women. Thirty women (59.8 ± 5.2 years), who were at least 12 months post menopause were allocated into a control (CON) group and an exercise (EX) training group. The EX group underwent a 2-week (five times/week) multicomponent exercise program comprising aerobic, strength, flexibility, and balance exercises for 40–60 min. Executive function was assessed by using the Stroop test and global cognitive function was assessed using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) at baseline (pre) and after 2 weeks (post) of exercise. The EX group showed improved performance in the Stroop test, with faster inhibition reaction time (ES (g) = 0.76; p = 0.039) and fewer errors across all tasks (color naming: g = 0.8, p = 0.032; word reading: g = 0.88, p = 0.019; inhibition: g = 0.99, p = 0.009; switching: g = 0.93, p = 0.012) following exercise intervention. Additionally, statistical analysis of the MMSE score showed a significant improvement (g = 1.27; p = 0.001). In conclusion, our findings suggest that a short-term multicomponent exercise program improves selective tasks of executive function in postmenopausal women along with global cognitive function. Trial registration ISRCTN13086152 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current study, it was aimed to evaluate neurotrophic factor levels and their relationship with executive functions in high-risk children and adolescents (high-risk group) whose parents were diagnosed with bipolar disorder (BD) but not affected by any psychiatric disease,and in order to determine possible vulnerability factors related to the disease. The study sample consisted of 32 high-risk group and 34 healthy controls. The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version-Turkish Adaptation (KSADS-PL-T), Stroop Test, Serial Digit Learning Test (SDLT) and Cancellation Test to evaluate executive functions were administered to all participants by the clinician.Serum levels of neurotrophic factors were measured using commercial enzyme linked immunosorbent assay kits. Serum BDNF, NT-3, NT-4 levels and SDLT scores were significantly lower in the high-risk group for BD compared to the healthy control group. A moderate negative correlation was found between BDNF levels and the Cancellation Test scores in the high-risk group. In addition to these results, the odds ratios of age, NT-4, SDLT scores for being in the risky group in terms of BD diagnosis were 1.26, 0.99 and 0.86 respectively. This was a cross-sectional study. Causality between study results is therefore difficult to establish. The relatively small sample size of the study is another limitation. The results of the present study suggest that BDNF, NT-3, NT-4 may play a role in the physiopathology of BD and may be associated with impaired executive function areas such as attention and response inhibition in the high-risk group. • Neurotrophic factors may play a role in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. • Neurotrophic factors may be associated with impaired executive functions. • Examination of the offspring of bipolar parents provides an opportunity to investigate early changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study addressed the still-open issue of whether semantic (in addition to response) conflict does indeed contribute to Stroop interference (which along with facilitation contributes to the overall Stroop effect also known as Congruency effect). To this end, semantic conflict was examined across the entire response time (RT) distribution (as opposed to mean RTs). Three (out of four) reported experiments, along with cross-experimental analyses, revealed that semantic conflict was absent in the participants' faster responses. This result characterizes Stroop interference as a unitary phenomenon (i.e., driven uniquely by response conflict). When the same participants' responses were slower, Stroop interference became a composite phenomenon with an additional contribution of semantic conflict that was statistically independent of both response conflict and facilitation. While the present findings allow us to account for the fact that semantic conflict has not been consistently found in past studies, further empirical and theoretical efforts are still needed to explain why exactly it is restricted to longer responses. Indeed, since neither unitary nor composite models can account for this polymorphic nature of Stroop interference on their own, the implications for the current state of theory are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fibromyalgia, characterized by chronic pain and cognitive impairments, significantly impacts patients' quality of life. Physical exercise has been shown to improve cognitive functions and reduce pain severity. Additionally, positive affect enhances cognitive flexibility and facilitates better adaptation to chronic pain, suggesting that combining physical activity and positive affect could mitigate cognitive deficits in fibromyalgia patients. Objectives: The objective of this work is to explore the relationship between pain severity and cognitive performance through time spent doing moderate physical activity while taking into account the role of positive affect in fibromyalgia. Methods: This prospective study was structured into two phases of evaluation. First, pain severity, positive affect, and time spent performing moderate physical activity were evaluated, and one week later cognitive performance (assessed through the Stroop test) was also evaluated. The final sample consisted of 231 women with fibromyalgia. Moderated mediation analyses were performed using PROCESS. Results: The moderated mediation model showed that the effect of moderate physical activity on the relationship between pain severity and cognitive performance was significant for low levels of positive affect but not for moderate or high levels. That is, the indirect effect of pain intensity on cognitive performance through time spent doing moderate physical activity only has an effect when patients with fibromyalgia present low levels of positive affect. However, there was no significant indirect effect in the simple mediation model. Conclusions: The findings of this study underscore the importance of considering the level of positive affect when examining the impact of moderate physical activity on cognitive performance in women with fibromyalgia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate the influence of acute normobaric hypoxia on standing balance under single and dual-task conditions, both with and without visual input. Methods: 20 participants (7 female, 20–31 years old) stood on a force plate for 16, 90-s trials across four balance conditions: single-task (quiet stance) or dual-task (auditory Stroop test), with eyes open or closed. Trials were divided into four oxygen conditions where the fraction of inspired oxygen (FIO2) was manipulated (normoxia: 0.21 and normobaric hypoxia: 0.16, 0.145 and 0.13 FIO2) to simulate altitudes of 1100, 3,400, 4300, and 5200 m. Participants breathed each FIO2 for ~ 3 min before testing, which lasted an additional 7–8 min per oxygen condition. Cardiorespiratory measures included heart rate, peripheral blood oxygen saturation, and pressure of end tidal (PET) CO2 and O2. Center of pressure measures included total path length, 95% ellipse area, and anteroposterior and mediolateral velocity. Auditory Stroop test performance was measured as response accuracy and latency. Results: Significant decreases in oxygen saturation and PETO2, and increased heart rate were observed between normoxia and normobaric hypoxia (P < 0.0001). Total path length was higher at 0.13 compared to 0.21 FIO2 for the eyes closed no Stoop test condition (P = 0.0197). No other significant differences were observed. Conclusion: These findings suggest that acute normobaric hypoxia has a minimal impact on standing balance and does not influence auditory Stroop test or dual-task performance. Further investigation with longer exposure is required to understand the impact and time course of normobaric hypoxia on standing balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]