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As current methods of production of phycocyanobilin, a photosynthetic blue pigment derived from phycocyanin of filamentous cyanobacteria, Pseudanabaena sp. ABRG5–3, Limnothrix sp. SK1–2–1, and Spirulina sp., exhibit a low extraction efficiency, a new extraction method using ethanol extraction as a type of solvolysis with an autoclave (130 ℃, 5.7 bar, 10 min) was developed in this study. This method exhibited high efficiency and enabled easy recovery of the three types of phycocyanobilins. The identity of the three types of phycocyanobilins was confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Phycocyanobilins were stable at high temperatures (80 ℃) and acidic (pH 3) conditions. Phycocyanobilins also possessed a remarkable antioxidant property. This is the first time that a simple phycocyanobilin extraction method with a recovery rate of more than 60 % and approximately 1 % per dry cell weight of filamentous cyanobacteria has been demonstrated. This novel production method is thus convenient and effective for obtaining high-purity phycocyanobilins. • A new efficient method of phycocyanobilin (PCB) extraction was developed. • Structure and MW of three PCBs were confirmed by HPLC and ESI-CID-MS. • PCBs were stable under high temperatures (80 ℃) and acidic (pH 3) conditions. • PCBs show significant antioxidant abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Studying the effect of dietary Spirulina and lysozyme supplementation on the metabolome and proteome of liver tissue contributes to understanding potential hepatic adaptations of piglets to these novel diets. This study aimed to understand the influence of including 10% Spirulina on the metabolome and proteome of piglet liver tissue. Three groups of 10 post-weaned piglets, housed in pairs, were fed for 28 days with one of three experimental diets: a cereal and soybean meal-based diet (Control), a base diet with 10% Spirulina (SP), and an SP diet supplemented with 0.01% lysozyme (SP + L). At the end of the trial, animals were sacrificed and liver tissue was collected. Metabolomics analysis (n = 10) was performed using NMR data analysed with PCA and PLS-DA. Proteomics analysis (n = 5) was conducted using a filter aided sample preparation (FASP) protocol and Tandem Mass Tag (TMT)-based quantitative approach with an Orbitrap mass spectrometer. Results: Growth performance showed an average daily gain reduction of 9.5% and a feed conversion ratio increase of 10.6% in groups fed Spirulina compared to the control group. Metabolomic analysis revealed no significant differences among the groups and identified 60 metabolites in the liver tissue. Proteomics analysis identified 2,560 proteins, with 132, 11, and 52 differentially expressed in the Control vs. SP, Control vs. SP + L and SP vs. SP + L comparisons, respectively. This study demonstrated that Spirulina enhances liver energy conversion efficiency, detoxification and cellular secretion. It improves hepatic metabolic efficiency through alterations in fatty acid oxidation (e.g., upregulation of enzymes like fatty acid synthase and increased acetyl-CoA levels), carbohydrate catabolism (e.g., increased glucose and glucose-6-phosphate), pyruvate metabolism (e.g., higher levels of pyruvate and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase), and cellular defence mechanisms (e.g., upregulation of glutathione and metallothionein). Lysozyme supplementation mitigates some adverse effects of Spirulina, bringing physiological responses closer to control levels. This includes fewer differentially expressed proteins and improved dry matter, organic matter and energy digestibility. Lysozyme also enhances coenzyme availability, skeletal myofibril assembly, actin-mediated cell contraction, tissue regeneration and development through mesenchymal migration and nucleic acid synthesis pathways. Conclusions: While Spirulina inclusion had some adverse effects on growth performance, it also enhanced hepatic metabolic efficiency by improving fatty acid oxidation, carbohydrate catabolism and cellular defence mechanisms. The addition of lysozyme further improved these benefits by reducing some of the negative impacts on growth and enhancing nutrient digestibility, tissue regeneration, and overall metabolic balance. Together, Spirulina and lysozyme demonstrate potential as functional dietary components, but further optimization is needed to fully realize their benefits without compromising growth performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The optimal conditions were explored for the preparation of Spirulina blended liquor (SBL) and Spirulina fermented wine (SFW), respectively. The parameters obtaining highest alga polysaccharide were calculated by response surface methodology. The optimal conditions for SBL preparation were base liquor of 42% vol, ultrasonication time of 37‐min and ultrasonic power of 80 W with polysaccharide content (PC) and alcohol content (AC) of 0.2181 g/L and 39.7% vol, respectively. In the case of SFW, optimum fermentation occurred at 22°C, with a 4% inoculum and 6‐day period with PC and AC of 8.533 g/L and 11.2% vol, respectively. Headspace solid‐phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to quantitatively analyze the volatile components of SBL and SFW. There were 32 and 40 main aroma compounds in SBL and SFW, respectively. Volatile organic compounds, including α‐ionone and β‐ionone, produced by Spirulina were detected in both SBL and SFW. Comparative evaluation of scavenging activity and total reducing power revealed the antioxidant capacity of SFW significantly outperformed that of SBL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural pigments are desired for use in food products due to the long-term adverse effects of synthetic pigments on consumers, industry, and health. In the search for naturally sourced pigments, researchers explored cyanobacteria and its pigments as one of the potential bioresources. Blue-green algae produce phycobiliproteins such as Phycocyanin, Phycoerythrin, and Allophycocyanin, which can serve as natural pigments. The pigments synthesized and extracted from algal sources have vast commercial value in various industries, including cosmetics, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, etc., apart from their numerous health benefits. Over the course of time, scientific research has led to multiple advancements in the production and extraction strategies of pigments from Spirulina platensis , which has led to the expansion of its applications in various sectors. This review outlines recent advances in the sources and manufacturing of Phycocyanin, with an emphasis on specific extraction and purification procedures, as well as possible applications in diagnostics, foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. [Display omitted] • Factors affecting the growth and Stability of Phycocyanin are outlined. • Bioactivities of Phycocyanin extracted from Spirulina is reviewed. • Different extraction methods used for the extraction of PC were documented with their advantages and disadvantages. • Present review also provides an insight on biosynthesis and structure of the Phycocyanin from Phycobiliproteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperlipidemia is the root cause of numerous chronic conditions, leading to high mortality rates around the globe. Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) microalgae serve as a promising reservoir of bioactive compounds with diverse pharmacological properties. The current study examined the nutritional profile of spirulina powder in relation to strict glycemic control, specifically focusing on its potential to lower lipid levels. In an in vivo investigation, normal healthy male Wistar albino rats (n = 60) were divided into two groups: a negative control group (NC) of ten rats and a high-fat diet group (n = 50) that were fed a cholesterol-rich diet until their cholesterol levels reached or exceeded 250 mg/dL. Subsequently, the hypercholesterolemic rats were then randomly allocated to several treatment groups: a positive control (PC); a standard treatment diet (STD) involving fenofibrate at a dose of 20 mg/kg body weight; and three experimental groups (T1, T2, and T3) that received spirulina powder supplementation at doses of 300, 600, and 900 mg per kg body weight, respectively, for the period of 12 weeks. Blood samples were analyzed for oxidative stress biomarkers, insulin levels, lipid profiles, liver function, and expression of gene levels in the diabetogenic pathway. The study utilized spectrophotometric colorimetric methods to identify oxidative stress biomarkers, serum kit methods to measure lipid profiles and liver enzymes, and the assessment of qPCR for mRNA quantity. According to the research findings, spirulina powder has certain noteworthy features. It had the greatest quantity of chlorogenic acid (4052.90 µg/g) among seven phenolics and two flavonoid compounds obtained by HPLC-UV analysis. Furthermore, the proximate analysis demonstrated that spirulina is high in protein (16.45 ± 0.8%) and has a significant energy yield of 269.51 K-calories per 100 g. A maximal spirulina dose of 900 mg/kg/wt significantly lowered oxidative stress, cholesterol, triglyceride, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and insulin levels (p ≤ 0.05). In contrast, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) compared to all other groups, except the NC group. The study provides remarkable proof about the pharmacological impact of spirulina powders. Significant reductions (p ≤ 0.05) in liver enzymes {alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST)} were observed across all treatment groups, with the exception of the NC, compared to the positive control. The treatment groups had significantly greater gene expression levels of INS-1, PDX-1, IGF-1, and GLUT-2 than the positive control group (p ≤ 0.05). These findings highlight spirulina's potential as a long-term regulator of hyperglycemia in rat models with induced hyperlipidemia, owing to its phenolic bioactive components that serve as antioxidants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bio-based nanoparticles (NPs) production has been an alternative method for preparing NPs for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. This study aims to evaluate the production of tellurium nanoparticles (TeNPs) using the co-culture of algae and fungi and finally to investigate the cytotoxicity of NPs on cancer cell lines MDA-MB-468 and healthy cell line HFF. The production of TeNPs was done using the co-culture of algae and fungi. Using the Tyndall effect, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), NPs were evaluated. Finally, using the MTT assay, the toxicity of the NPs produced on MDA-MB-468 and HFF was investigated. TeNPs were synthesized using co-culture, and the average size of NPs was 20 to 30 nm. They have a spherical shape and superior monodispersity. It also found that NPs have a time—and concentration-dependent inhibitory effect on cancer cells, while they do not affect healthy cells. This research is the first report on the co-cultivation of two different strains of algae and fungi to synthesize NPs. Many studies are needed in the future to determine the characteristics of this method. Still, considering the characteristics of both organisms used, it can be said that NPs synthesized have improved stability and properties. The use of NPs in the fight against cancer has many features, including increasing effectiveness and reducing side effects, and can replace the current risky methods in the future; for this reason, developing new methods of NPs synthesis is very important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurodegenerative diseases are linked to the process of neurodegeneration. This can be caused by several mechanisms, including inflammation and accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Despite their high incidence, there is still no effective treatment or cure for these diseases. Cyanobacteria have been seen as a possible source for new compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential, such as polysaccharides (sacran), phycobiliproteins (phycocyanin) and lipopeptides (honaucins and malyngamides), which can be interesting to combat neurodegeneration. As a promising case of success, Arthrospira (formerly Spirulina) has revealed a high potential for preventing neurodegeneration. Additionally, advantageous culture conditions and sustainable production of cyanobacteria, which are allied to the development of genetic, metabolic, and biochemical engineering, are promising. The aim of this review is to compile and highlight research on the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of cyanobacteria with focus on the application as neuroprotective agents. Also, a major goal is to address essential features that brand cyanobacteria as an ecoefficient and economically viable option, linking health to sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii denotes a significant menace to public health, and it mandates an urgent development of new effective medications. Here, we aimed to estimate the efficiency of the zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NP) biosynthesized from Arthrospira maxima (Spirulina) both in vitro and in vivo. Carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii isolates were collected, identified, tested for their antibiotic susceptibility, and then subjected to PCR to detect carbapenemase-producing genes. The most predominant carbapenemase resistance gene was blaKPC. The biosynthesized ZnO NP were characterized using UV, FTIR, XRD, SEM, and TEM. The prepared ZnO NP was then tested against A. baumannii isolates to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), which ranged from 250 to 1000 μg/ml. Burn wound was persuaded in twenty rats and inoculated with carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii isolate. Rats were allocated into four groups: a negative control group, a positive control group treated with topical 0.9% saline, a test treatment group that received topical ZnO NP, and a standard treatment group. All groups received treatment for 15 consecutive days and then euthanized. Skin samples were harvested and then subjected to histopathological and immunochemical investigations. ZnO NP revealed a comparable antibacterial activity to colistin as it revealed a lower level of fibrosis, mature surface epithelization with keratinization, and restoration of the normal skin architecture. In addition, it significantly decreased the immunoreactivity of the studied inflammatory markers. Thus, ZnO NP synthesized by A. maxima could be considered a promising, safe, and biocompatible alternative to traditional antibiotics in the therapy of carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The provision of quality and sufficient shrimp fry for production is largely determined by the management of maintenance during larval stadia. This study aims to obtain the best treatment of natural feed in the form of Spirulina sp. and Artemia sp. as feed supplements to improve the growth performance and survival rate of patin fish larvae. The experiment used a Complete Randomized Design consisting of 4 feed treatments and 3 replicates: A (Artemia sp. 100%), B (Artemia sp. 100% and Spirulina sp. 100%), C (Artemia sp. 50% and Spirulina sp. 50%), and D (Spirulina sp. 100%). The larvae with a density of 50 heads/L were kept in the aquarium and fed according to the treatment. The density of Spirulina sp. administered was 104–105 cells/mL maintained until day 7 according to the treatment. The parameters measured included growth performance, which included specific growth rate (SGR), survival (SR), absolute length growth (PPM), and analysis of larval digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, and protease). The data were analyzed using one way-analysis of variance and continued with Duncan's Multiple Range Test with a 95% confidence interval using SPSS version 22.0. The results showed that the administration of Spirulina sp. produced better SGR, SR, PPM, amylase enzyme, lipase, and protease activities compared to the control (100% administration of Artemia sp.). The best treatment was given by 100% Spirulina sp. treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of mesenchymal stem cells is a promising strategy for treating bone-related diseases. Therefore, the development of agents capable of inducing the differentiation of stem cells into osteoblasts is beneficial for such treatments. In this study, the effects of aqueous and organic extracts of Arthrospira platensis and Gracilaria gracilis on the induction of bone differentiation in human amniotic mesenchymal stem cells (hAMSCs) were evaluated. First, the cytotoxicity of aqueous and organic extracts at concentrations of 60, 100 and 140 μg mL-1 was measured using the MTT method. Then, the osteogenic differentiation effects of the cells were evaluated through Alizarin Red staining, alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity measurement and the expression level of Runx2, OCN and β-catenin genes. The results showed that 60 μg mL-1of aqueous and methanol extracts of the algae did not exhibit cytotoxicity. Treatment of cells with these extracts resulted in the accumulation of calcium deposits and increased alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity. Additionally, the expression of Runx2 and OCN genes increased with the influence of A. platensis aqueous and G. gracilis methanol extracts, while the β-catenin gene expression increased with the influence of A. platensis aqueous extract. In conclusion, the study suggests that A. platensis aqueous and G. gracilis methanol extracts are capable of inducing bone differentiation in hAMSCs. These findings provide new insights into osteogenesis mediated by biocompounds from algae and may contribute to the development of therapeutic agents for bone-related diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spirulina (Arthospira platensis) is known for its rich content of natural compounds like phycocyanin, chlorophylls, carotenoids, and high protein levels, making it a nutrient-dense food. Over the past decade, research has aimed to optimize the extraction, separation, and purification of these valuable metabolites, focusing on technologies such as high-pressure processing, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and microwave-assisted extraction as well as enzymatic treatments, chromatographic precipitation, and membrane separation. In this study, various extraction methods (conventional vs. ultrasound-assisted), solvents (water vs. phosphate buffer), solvent-to-biomass ratios (1:5 vs. 1:10), and ultrafiltration (PES membrane of MWCO 3 kDa, 2 bar) were evaluated. The quantities of total protein, phycocyanin (PC), chlorophyll a (Cla), and total carotenoids (TCC) were measured. The results showed that ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) with phosphate buffer at a 1:10 ratio yielded a metabolite-rich retentate (MRR) with 37.0 ± 1.9 mg/g of PC, 617 ± 15 mg/g of protein, 0.4 ± 0.2 mg/g of Cla, and 0.15 ± 0.14 mg/g of TCC. Water extraction in the concentration process achieved the highest concentrations in MRR, with approximately 76% PC, 92% total protein, 62% Cla, and 41% TCC. These findings highlight the effective extraction and concentration processes to obtain a metabolite-rich retentate from Spirulina biomass, reducing the volume tenfold and showing potential as a functional ingredient for the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of biofertilizers is becoming an economical and environmentally friendly alternative to promote sustainable agriculture. Biochar from microalgae/cyanobacteria can be applied to enhance the productivity of food crops through soil improvement, slow nutrient absorption and release, increased water uptake, and long-term mitigation of greenhouse gas sequestration. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the stimulatory effects of biochar produced from Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) biomass on the development and seed production of rice plants. Biochar was produced by slow pyrolysis at 300°C, and characterization was performed through microscopy, chemical, and structural composition analyses. Molecular and physiological analyses were performed in rice plants submitted to different biochar concentrations (0.02, 0.1, and 0.5 mg mL-1) to assess growth and productivity parameters. Morphological and physicochemical characterization revealed a heterogeneous morphology and the presence of several minerals (Na, K, P, Mg, Ca, S, Fe, and Si) in the biochar composition. Chemical modification of compounds post-pyrolysis and a highly porous structure with micropores were observed. Rice plants submitted to 0.5 mg mL-1 of biochar presented a decrease in root length, followed by an increase in root dry weight. The same concentration influenced seed production, with an increase of 44% in the number of seeds per plant, 17% in the percentage of full seeds per plant, 12% in the weight of 1,000 full seeds, 53% in the seed weight per plant, and 12% in grain area. Differential proteomic analyses in shoots and roots of rice plants submitted to 0.5 mg mL-1 of biochar for 20 days revealed a fine-tuning of resource allocation towards seed production. These results suggest that biochar derived from Arthrospira platensis biomass can stimulate rice seed production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, in order to verify the effects due to the addition of spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) in a food product, a wildflower honey was analyzed in terms of chemical composition, physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity before and after the addition of the spirulina. HS-SPME/GC–MS and HPLC/UV were applied to carry out the chemical analyses. The obtained results demonstrated that the volatile profile and also the sugar content were significantly influenced by the addition of spirulina, showing significant qualitative and quantitative differences compared to honey without spirulina. The increase in HMF in honey added with spirulina was significant, demonstrating that its presence could accelerate the Maillard reaction. Electrical conductivity measured by using a conductometer was also increased while the moisture content was reduced in honey enriched with spirulina. Instead, the pH value was similar between the two samples. On the other hand, honey fortification with spirulina determined a significant increase of 12.5% in the total phenolic content (TPC), and a 56.25% increase in protein content. Further, the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was also evaluated and a significant increase was determined as a result of the addition of spirulina. In conclusion, honey enriched with A. platensis was found to be characterized by a high pool of bioactive metabolites as well as significant changes in almost all the measurements performed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study evaluates the effect of prolonged feeding with a high inclusion level of Spirulina, combined with peptidases, on broiler chicken's growth performance, digesta viscosity, carcass attributes and meat quality. The experiment involved 120 male broilers divided into 40 battery brooders, each housing 3 birds. Post 7-day acclimatisation with a corn and soybean-based diet, the birds were provided with one of four diets: a corn and soybean meal-based diet (CON), a mix incorporating 15% Spirulina (SP), a Spirulina-rich mix supplemented with 0.025% of commercial VemoZyme® P (SPV), or a Spirulina-rich mix supplemented with 0.10% of porcine pancreatin (SPP). The CON group had higher body weight and weight gain (p < 0.001) and a lower feed conversion ratio (p < 0.001) from day 7-21, compared to the Spirulina-fed groups. Spirulina-fed chickens significantly increased ileum viscosity (p < 0.05). Spirulina also elevated the weight (p < 0.05) of the duodenum and the length (p < 0.001) of the entire gastrointestinal tract compared to CON. Breast and thigh muscles from Spirulina-fed broilers displayed higher values of yellowness (b*) (p < 0.001), pigments (p < 0.05), and n-3 PUFA (p < 0.01), while n-6/n-3 ratio (p < 0.001) and a-tocopherol (p < 0.001) decreased relative to the CON. In conclusion, the introduction of a high level of Spirulina into broiler diets for an extended duration, has the potential to diminish birds' growth performance, possibly due to increased digesta viscosity. However, it does enhance the nutritional quality of the meat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Methotrexate (MTX), a drug utilized in cancer and rheumatoid arthritis treatment, is associated with acute and chronic neurodegenerative alterations. Spirulina platensis (SP) has several important phytochemical substances that act as free radical scavengers or natural antioxidants. The current study investigated the possible effects of the blue-green alga Spirulina platensis on cerebellar damage in male rats exposed to methotrexate. Forty (40) adult male albino rats were randomly divided into 4 groups (n = 10) and treated for one week: GI, the control group; GII was orally given 1000 mg SP/kg/daily, GIII was given a single intraperitoneal injection of MTX 75 mg/kg at the first day, and continued under the normal condition without other treatment till the end of the experiment, and GIV received both SP and MTX together with the same previous doses and duration. Neurobehavioral, histopathological, histochemical, immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, molecular, and biochemical data were recorded. Results: MTX caused severe cerebellar degeneration in 3 cortical layers, especially the Purkinje layer. The Purkinje layer displayed a disrupted monolayer arrangement with pyknotic nuclei, a significant decrease in cell number, and shrunken cells surrounded by empty spaces. The molecular and granular layers are degenerated with elevated immunoreactions and gene expression of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1), and neurofilament light chain antibody (NFL). Moreover, MTX significantly increased malondialdehyde (MDA) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) while decreasing the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), serotonin, superoxide dismutase (SOD), acetylcholinesterase (ACHE), norepinephrine, and dopamine. These insults were noticeably mitigated by concomitant treatment with spirulina. Conclusion: Spirulina improves neurological function by modulating the cerebellar damage elicited by MTX. This improvement may be attributed to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of spirulina. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focused on the development and rheological properties of pectin-gelatin binary hydrogels based on pea protein and spirulina due to their high water content, low calories, and satiety benefits. According to rotational and oscillatory tests, the consistency coefficients were 25% and 20% higher in the 6P1B sample (6% pectin, 0.5% gelatin, and 1% pea protein) compared to the 6P1S sample (6% pectin, 0.5% gelatin, and 1% spirulina), respectively. The flow behavior index ranged from 0.22±0.01 to 0.29±0.02. Furthermore, the thermal stability of pea protein formulations outperformed those containing spirulina. Molecular docking analysis indicated that the binding energies between pectin- gelatin, pectin-spirulina, and pectin-pea protein were relatively stable and efficient, with values of - 6.53, -7.85, and -8.30 kcal/mol, respectively. Pea protein and spirulina-based hydrogels show potential for use in 3D printing technology and as fat substitutes, and they can support the development of innovative food products with nutritional and functional properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The surging popularity of plant-based diets and the growing emphasis on clean-label products have intensified interest in Spirulina within the food industry. As more people adopt vegetarian, vegan, or flexitarian lifestyles, demand for plant-based protein sources has escalated. Spirulina's high protein content and complete amino acid profile make it an ideal candidate to meet this demand. However, incorporating Spirulina into food products is not without its challenges. Its strong, earthy, or fishy taste can be off-putting to consumers and difficult to mask in food formulations. Furthermore, isolating Spirulina's bioactive compounds while preserving their integrity is complex, especially considering the heat sensitivity of many of these components. Traditional extraction methods often employ high temperatures, which can degrade these valuable compounds. Consequently, there is a growing preference for non-thermal extraction techniques. This paper provides an overview of recent advancements in Spirulina cultivation, bioactive extraction, and their application in food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spirulina maxima is a cyanobacterium considered a "superfood" due to its metabolites and nutrient content. These include a complex mixture of minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, proteins, and accessory pigments. In recent years, it has positioned itself as a promising source of bioactive molecules for the treatment of several diseases, including metabolic syndrome, coronary diseases, cancer, and the improvement of health modulating oxidative stress. C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a photosynthetic pigment from green-blue cyanobacterium and the most abundant phycobiliprotein in the Spirulina genus with various pharmacological properties attributed due to its antioxidant capacity but has no specific cellular target. This has made it a molecule of great interest in biomedical research. This review focuses on the pharmacological effects and the benefits on metabolic syndrome and oxidative stress of C-PC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phycocyanin (PC) is a naturally occurring green pigment in Spirulina. It was extracted by ultrasonic extraction using green technology, and its structure was studied using IR- and NMR-spectroscopy. Spectral data confirmed the PC structure. This study also involves an in silico assessment of the diverse applications of green pigment PC. Utilizing QSAR, PreADME/T, SwissADME, and Pro-Tox, this study explores the safety profile, pharmacokinetics, and potential targets of PC. QSAR analysis reveals a favorable safety profile, with the parent structure and most metabolites showing no binding to DNA or proteins. PreADME/T indicates low skin permeability, excellent intestinal absorption, and medium permeability, supporting oral administration. Distribution analysis suggests moderate plasma protein binding and cautious blood–brain barrier permeability, guiding formulation strategies. Metabolism assessments highlight interactions with key cytochrome P450 enzymes, influencing drug interactions. Target prediction analysis unveils potential targets, suggesting diverse therapeutic effects, including cardiovascular benefits, anti-inflammatory activities, neuroprotection, and immune modulation. Based on the in silico analysis, PC holds promise for various applications due to its safety, bioavailability, and potential therapeutic benefits. Experimental validation is crucial to elucidate precise molecular mechanisms, ensuring safe and effective utilization in therapeutic and dietary contexts. DFT calculations, including geometry optimization, MEP analysis, HOMO-LUMO energy surface, and quantum reactivity parameters of the PC compound, were obtained using the B3LYP/6–311G(d,p) level. This integrated approach contributes to a comprehensive understanding of PC's pharmacological profile and informs future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are no reports of production and characterization of polysaccharides in the genera Chlorella and Spirulina cultivated in seawater (SW) and brackish groundwater (BGW). Furthermore, there are few studies on the cultivation of these microalgae in seawater for this purpose. Therefore, the aim of the study was to evaluate the production and composition of polysaccharides in Spirulina sp. LEB 18 and Chlorella fusca LEB 111 grown in seawater and brackish groundwater, with and without nutrient supplementation. In this study, 100% SW and 100% BGW were used as nutrient sources and supplemented with different concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and EDTA sources that make up the Zarrouk/BG-11 culture media. Cultivating Chlorella fusca LEB 111 in SW, without the addition of nutrients, resulted in an approximately 23% increase in starch production (g/g). The cultivation of Spirulina sp. LEB 18 in SW and BGW, without the addition of nutrients, showed an increase in glycogen concentrations (50.5 and 40.75 g/100 gbiomass, respectively) and highest levels of exopolysaccharides (0.34 and 0.50 g/100 gbiomass, respectively) compared to the control. Moreover, exopolysaccharides compositional analysis has shown an increase in glucose content with salinity, and a decrease in xylose and glucuronic acid. This cultivation strategy demonstrates the viability of utilizing SW and BGW as alternatives to freshwater culture medium for microalgae that have high nutritional requirements, with the potential to produce exopolysaccharides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high protein content of several microalgae species makes them an excellent addition to various food products, increasing their nutritional value. In this study, vegan basil pesto was designed and enriched with 1% and 2% Arthrospira platensis (spirulina). The pesto obtained was characterized by increased protein content (up to 40% more) and had a rich mineral composition, including up to three times more iron and 25% more calcium, among others. The increase of spirulina addition in the pesto also increased the content of polyphenols (up to 50% more) and flavonoids (up to 39% more). The fortified products had higher antioxidant activity against ABTS (up to 484.56 ± 2.16 μM Trolox/g) and DPPH (up to 392.41 ± 13.58 μM Trolox/g). The addition of spirulina will affect the hardness of the sauce, while in the other texture parameters (adhesiveness, springiness, and cohesion), there were no significant differences between the control and spirulina-fortified pesto. Although the pesto with spirulina was significantly darker in color (ΔE 8.83 and 12.05), consumers still rated it highly. All quality parameters of pesto with a 1% spirulina addition were rated the highest, contributing to the highest overall rating of the product (4.56). An increase in spirulina addition to 2% resulted in a decrease in the overall pesto rating (4.01), but still remains a good result compared to the control (4.22). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigates the influence of various catalysts (Ni/TiO2, Co/TiO2, and Zeolite) on the hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae and explores the effect of co-solvents (acetone, methanol, and toluene) on biocrude yield from different microalgae three species namely Nannochloropsis oculata, Chlorella vulgaris, and Spirulina maxima. Catalyst characterization using FESEM, XRD, and BET analysis revealed distinct properties. Under Co-TiO2, Nannochloropsis oculata and Chlorella vulgaris yield 56.21% and 57.6% biocrude at 5% loading; Spirulina maxima yields 45.3% at 2.5% loading. With Ni-TiO2, Nannochloropsis oculata yields 52.4% at 2.5% loading; Chlorella vulgaris yields 44.7% at 5%; Spirulina maxima yields 44% at 2.5% loading. Zeolite yields: Spirulina maxima and Chlorella vulgaris yield 53.8% and 52.1% at 2.5%; Nannochloropsis oculata yields 48.3% at 7.5% loading. Co-solvent addition significantly boosts biocrude yield; methanol and toluene yield 53.7% and 49.2% for Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina maxima, respectively, while acetone yields 57.6% for Nannochloropsis oculata. Different solvents extract diverse functional groups such as alkanes, halides, aromatics, and aldehydes which has wide industrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in research techniques have enabled rapid progress in the study of spirulina, an ancient edible cyanobacteria. Nowadays, spirulina species are classified into three genera: Spirulina, Arthrospira, and Limnospira. The latter now refers to industrially manufactured spirulina strains. Whole-genome sequencing revealed gene clusters involved in metabolite production, and the physiology of spirulina. Omics technologies demonstrated the absence of hazardous compounds in spirulina cells, confirming the safety of this biomass as a food product. Spirulina is a good source of different chemicals used in food manufacturing, food supplements, and pharmaceuticals. Spirulina's enrichment with inherent biologically active substances makes it a potential supplier of natural products for dietary and pharmaceutical applications. Spirulina is also a prospective component of both terrestrial and space-based life support systems. Here, we review current breakthroughs in spirulina research and clarify fallacies that can be found in both professional literature and public media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Studying the effect of dietary Spirulina and lysozyme supplementation on the metabolome and proteome of liver tissue contributes to understanding potential hepatic adaptations of piglets to these novel diets. This study aimed to understand the influence of including 10% Spirulina on the metabolome and proteome of piglet liver tissue. Three groups of 10 post-weaned piglets, housed in pairs, were fed for 28 days with one of three experimental diets: a cereal and soybean meal-based diet (Control), a base diet with 10% Spirulina (SP), and an SP diet supplemented with 0.01% lysozyme (SP + L). At the end of the trial, animals were sacrificed and liver tissue was collected. Metabolomics analysis (n = 10) was performed using NMR data analysed with PCA and PLS-DA. Proteomics analysis (n = 5) was conducted using a filter aided sample preparation (FASP) protocol and Tandem Mass Tag (TMT)-based quantitative approach with an Orbitrap mass spectrometer. Results Growth performance showed an average daily gain reduction of 9.5% and a feed conversion ratio increase of 10.6% in groups fed Spirulina compared to the control group. Metabolomic analysis revealed no significant differences among the groups and identified 60 metabolites in the liver tissue. Proteomics analysis identified 2,560 proteins, with 132, 11, and 52 differentially expressed in the Control vs. SP, Control vs. SP + L and SP vs. SP + L comparisons, respectively. This study demonstrated that Spirulina enhances liver energy conversion efficiency, detoxification and cellular secretion. It improves hepatic metabolic efficiency through alterations in fatty acid oxidation (e.g., upregulation of enzymes like fatty acid synthase and increased acetyl-CoA levels), carbohydrate catabolism (e.g., increased glucose and glucose-6-phosphate), pyruvate metabolism (e.g., higher levels of pyruvate and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase), and cellular defence mechanisms (e.g., upregulation of glutathione and metallothionein). Lysozyme supplementation mitigates some adverse effects of Spirulina, bringing physiological responses closer to control levels. This includes fewer differentially expressed proteins and improved dry matter, organic matter and energy digestibility. Lysozyme also enhances coenzyme availability, skeletal myofibril assembly, actin-mediated cell contraction, tissue regeneration and development through mesenchymal migration and nucleic acid synthesis pathways. Conclusions While Spirulina inclusion had some adverse effects on growth performance, it also enhanced hepatic metabolic efficiency by improving fatty acid oxidation, carbohydrate catabolism and cellular defence mechanisms. The addition of lysozyme further improved these benefits by reducing some of the negative impacts on growth and enhancing nutrient digestibility, tissue regeneration, and overall metabolic balance. Together, Spirulina and lysozyme demonstrate potential as functional dietary components, but further optimization is needed to fully realize their benefits without compromising growth performance.

Abstract Carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii denotes a significant menace to public health, and it mandates an urgent development of new effective medications. Here, we aimed to estimate the efficiency of the zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NP) biosynthesized from Arthrospira maxima (Spirulina) both in vitro and in vivo. Carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii isolates were collected, identified, tested for their antibiotic susceptibility, and then subjected to PCR to detect carbapenemase-producing genes. The most predominant carbapenemase resistance gene was bla KPC. The biosynthesized ZnO NP were characterized using UV, FTIR, XRD, SEM, and TEM. The prepared ZnO NP was then tested against A. baumannii isolates to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), which ranged from 250 to 1000 μg/ml. Burn wound was persuaded in twenty rats and inoculated with carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii isolate. Rats were allocated into four groups: a negative control group, a positive control group treated with topical 0.9% saline, a test treatment group that received topical ZnO NP, and a standard treatment group. All groups received treatment for 15 consecutive days and then euthanized. Skin samples were harvested and then subjected to histopathological and immunochemical investigations. ZnO NP revealed a comparable antibacterial activity to colistin as it revealed a lower level of fibrosis, mature surface epithelization with keratinization, and restoration of the normal skin architecture. In addition, it significantly decreased the immunoreactivity of the studied inflammatory markers. Thus, ZnO NP synthesized by A. maxima could be considered a promising, safe, and biocompatible alternative to traditional antibiotics in the therapy of carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii infections.

Abstract Background Methotrexate (MTX), a drug utilized in cancer and rheumatoid arthritis treatment, is associated with acute and chronic neurodegenerative alterations. Spirulina platensis (SP) has several important phytochemical substances that act as free radical scavengers or natural antioxidants. The current study investigated the possible effects of the blue-green alga Spirulina platensis on cerebellar damage in male rats exposed to methotrexate. Forty (40) adult male albino rats were randomly divided into 4 groups (n = 10) and treated for one week: GI, the control group; GII was orally given 1000 mg SP/kg/daily, GIII was given a single intraperitoneal injection of MTX 75 mg/kg at the first day, and continued under the normal condition without other treatment till the end of the experiment, and GIV received both SP and MTX together with the same previous doses and duration. Neurobehavioral, histopathological, histochemical, immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, molecular, and biochemical data were recorded. Results MTX caused severe cerebellar degeneration in 3 cortical layers, especially the Purkinje layer. The Purkinje layer displayed a disrupted monolayer arrangement with pyknotic nuclei, a significant decrease in cell number, and shrunken cells surrounded by empty spaces. The molecular and granular layers are degenerated with elevated immunoreactions and gene expression of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1), and neurofilament light chain antibody (NFL). Moreover, MTX significantly increased malondialdehyde (MDA) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) while decreasing the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), serotonin, superoxide dismutase (SOD), acetylcholinesterase (ACHE), norepinephrine, and dopamine. These insults were noticeably mitigated by concomitant treatment with spirulina. Conclusion Spirulina improves neurological function by modulating the cerebellar damage elicited by MTX. This improvement may be attributed to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of spirulina.

BACKGROUND: An increasing incidence of metabolic disorders emphasizes the need to explore natural treatments. Spirulina, a microalga with a rich nutrient profile, offers a promising solution for obesity, diabetes, and inflammation. This study provides a meticulous analysis of spirulina powder, evaluating its physicochemical attributes and technofunctional properties through the use of advanced analytical techniques. RESULTS: Spirulina powder demonstrated strong flowability, substantial water and oil absorption capacity, and moderate foaming characteristics. The ethanolic extract of spirulina was found to be a repository of phenolic (6.93 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid (7.17 mg QE/g) compounds, manifesting considerable antioxidant activity with a 58.49 g kg−1 inhibition of 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals. The extract also exhibited pronounced inhibitory effects on lipase and amylase enzymes, with inhibition percentages of 72.05 g kg−1 and 70.28 g kg−1, respectively, and displayed a glucose retention capacity of 1.28 mg dL−1 (68.52 g kg−1) in a dialysis membrane assay. These results suggest its efficacy in modulating obesity and glycemic control. The powder also showed a potent anti‐inflammatory response by mitigating protein denaturation. CONCLUSION: Spirulina powder is a potent natural agent with multiple health benefits, meriting its incorporation into functional foods. It could be suitable for application in the food industry, offering a natural strategy to combat metabolic diseases. This research adds to the scientific literature on spirulina, paving the way for future research into its utilization. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of soybean, selenium and spirulina on bone metabolic factors in rats with combined fluoride and aluminum poisoning.Methods:Sixty SD rats were allocated to five groups: A control group, a high-fluoride aluminum group, a high-fluoride aluminum plus soybean group, a high-fluoride aluminum plus selenium group, and a high-fluoride aluminum plus spirulina group. Serum samples were collected and radioimmunoassay (RIA) was used to measure osteocalcin (BGP), calcitonin (CT), parathyroid hormone (PHT) and insulin growth factor I (IGF-1) levels after 90 and 165 days of intervention. 1. When comparing the serum BGP level in the high-fluorine aluminum plus selenium group with the high-fluorine aluminum group, suggesting that the addition of selenium intervention was beneficial in reducing the effect of high-fluorine aluminum on bone homeostasis. 2. After 90 days and 165 days, the difference in serum CT levels between the intervention group and the control group was not statistically significant, suggesting an effect of the intervention factors.3. After 90 days of exposure, the three intervention groups had lower serum PTH levels (p < 0.00), inferring the efficacy of the interventions.4. After 90 days, serum IGF-1 levels were elevated in the Spirulina group compared with the high-fluorinated aluminum group, and the difference was statistically significant, suggesting that the addition of Spirulina intervention may counteract the inhibition of bone growth by high-fluorinated aluminum. The intervention of soybean, selenium, and spirulina can counterbalance the effects of fluoride and aluminum on bone metabolism and slow down the process of bone turnover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Dietary vitamin B12 deficiency is one of the most common micronutrient deficiencies worldwide, with over a billion individuals suffering from low levels of the vitamin. While ruminant-derived meat and dairy products play a crucial role in providing the recommended B12 dietary allowance (2.4 µg/day), increasing the production and consumption of meat and milk entails substantial environmental ramifications. Spirulina blue-green algae (Arthrospira platensis) has been widely proposed as healthier and more sustainable substitutes for meat, milk, and dairy products (also known as meat and milk analogues). However, previous research has shown that while Spirulina contain desirable macro- and micro-nutrients (e.g., essential amino acids, calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron), the majority of vitamin B12 found in so-called traditional Spirulina is a non-active, pseudo-form (cobamide), unavailable to humans, referred to as pseudo-vitamin B12. This renders traditional Spirulina a limited alternative to animal-source foods. As a response, in this exploratory in vitro study, we ask whether light conditions may enhance active vitamin B12 production in Spirulina. We describe the use of scalable photobioreactors, artificially illuminated, located in the Hengill area of Iceland. These systems are used to cultivate Photosynthetically Controlled Spirulina (PCS), to produce carbon–neutral and nutritious biomass containing unopposed, biologically active vitamin B12, in levels comparable to beef (1.64 µg/100g in PCS with a standard deviation of 5% versus 0.7–1.5 μg/100g in beef). In terms of mitigating global vitamin B12 deficiency, we explore production scale up scenarios. In one scenario, by re-allocating the electricity currently consumed by heavy industry, Iceland could produce 277,950 tonnes of Spirulina biomass per year, which translates into approximately 4555 g per year of active vitamin B12, able to meet the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of over 13.8 million children aged 1–3. More ambitious production scenarios could see Iceland providing the RDA for over 26.5 million children aged 1–3, and over 50 million children aged 0–6 months.

Abstract Edwardsiellosis is a bacterial fish disease that mostly occurs in freshwater farms and is characterized by a high mortality rate. Edwardsiella tarda strain was recovered from 17 fish out of 50 Nile tilapia, which were harboring clinical signs of systemic septicemia. The level of un-ionized ammonia (NH3) in the fish farm’s water was 0.11–0.15 mg/L, which was stressful for the Nile tilapia. Sequencing of the gyrB1 gene confirmed that the isolate was E. tarda JALO4, and it was submitted to NCBI under the accession number PP449014. The isolated E. tarda harbored the virulence gene edw1 AHL-synthase (quorum sensing). In addition, the isolate was sensitive to trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole mean while it was intermediate to florfenicol. The median lethal dose (LD50) of E. tarda JALO4 was determined to be 1.7 × 105 CFU/mL in Nile tilapia. In the indoor experiment, Nile tilapia (45.05 ± 0.4 g), which received dietary Spirulina platensis (5 and 10 g/kg fish feed), showed optimum growth and feed utilization. Meanwhile, after receiving dietary S. platensis, the fish’s feed conversion ratio (FCR) was significantly enhanced compared to the control, which was 1.94, 1.99, and 2.88, respectively. The expression of immune-related genes interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were upsurged in E. tarda-challenged fish with higher intensity in S. platensis groups. Dietary S. platensis at a dose of 10 g/kg fish feed could provide a relative protection level (RPL) of 22.2% Nile tilapia challenged against E. tarda. Nile tilapia experimentally infected E. tarda, drastically altering their behavior: higher operculum movement, low food apprehension, and abnormal swimming dietary S. platensis (10 g/kg fish feed) could rapidly restore normal status. It was concluded that Edwardsiellosis could alter Nile tilapia behavior with a high loss in fish population. Fish received dietary-S. platensis could rapidly restore normal behavior after E. tarda infection. It is recommended the incorporation of S. platensis at doses of 10 g/kg into the Nile tilapia diet to boost their immunity and counteract E. tarda infection.

The experiment was conducted for the period from (9/16/2023 to 11/18/2023), with the aim of studying the effect of injecting eggs with different levels of organic selenium and spirulina algae extract on the hatchability characteristics, productive performance of broiler chickens. The experiment of injection and hatching of chicks was conducted in the Lailani hatchery located in the Lailan area. (600) hybrid eggs (Ross 308) from a flock of 33-week-old mothers imported from Republic of Turkey were used, with average egg weight 58 g. They were randomly distributed among (6) treatments with (100) eggs for each treatment and placed in BROODTECH incubator drawers until the age of (18 days), after which the eggs were injected and the drawers were transferred to the hatchery until the chicks emerged at the age of (21 days), which were: T1 = no negative control injection, T2 = injection of 0.5 ml of deionized distilled water per egg (positive control), T3 = injection of 0.5 ml/egg containing a concentration of 10 micrograms of organic selenium, T4 = 0.5 ml/egg injection containing a concentration of 20 micrograms of organic selenium, T5 = 0.5 ml/egg injection containing 1.5 mg of spirulina algae extract, T6= 0.5 ml/egg injection containing 3 mg of spirulina algae extract. The data were subjected to statistical analysis by applying one-way ANOVA using SAS software. Differences between treatments were tested using Duncan's multiple comparison test, at a significance level of P ≤0. 05. The study conducted that inject the egg with organic selenium were enhance the bird weight and the weight gain, moreover, the both of organic selenium and the spirulina extract affected significantly on the hatching rate, feed intake and FCR.

This experiment was conducted in the sheep field of the Department of Animal Production - College of Agriculture - University of Kirkuk, from 15/6/2023 until 6/9/2023, for 83 days. The study targeted the role of dosing pregnant ewes with an aqueous solution of spirulina algae powder and folic acid combined and alone on reproductive efficiency during the first pregnancy phase (early pregnancy). The experiment used 16 local ewes, one and a half years old and an average weight of 40.67 ± 0.470 kg. It was randomly distributed among four treatments, with four ewes for each treatment. The ewes of the first treatment (T1) were dosed with deionized water free of additives and were considered as the control treatment. The second treatment (T2) was dosed with an aqueous solution of spirulina algae powder at a concentration of (2.5 grams dissolved in 50 ml of deionized water/ewe/day). The third treatment (T3) was dosed with folic acid at a dose of (20 mg/ewe) at two doses per week, and the fourth treatment (T4) was dosed with a mixture of the second and third treatments with an aqueous solution of spirulina algae powder at a concentration of (2.5 grams dissolved in 50 ml of deionized water/ewe/day) + Folic acid at a dose of (20 mg/ewe) at two doses per week. The results of the study showed that there was a significant difference (P≤0.05) in the Total weight gain, reproductive performance, Progesterone levels and Cortisone levels in the groups dosed with an aqueous solution of spirulina algae powder with and without folic acid compared to the control group. Spirulina algae achieved the study objectives and obtained good results compared to the control treatment

This experimental study occurred in Iraq, Kirkuk, University of Kirkuk, College of Agriculture, Department of Animal Production from the 1st of September to 25th of December 2023. The study targeted the impact of different proportions of spirulina algae and folic acid on the productive traits of Awassi ewes during medium and late pregnancy stages, in addition to the impact of these proportions on the growth indicators of the newborn lambs on the first three weeks after birth. 16 pregnant ewes at 18-22 months as old and 56.6 kg average weight were used. The animals were divided randomly into four groups, each group including four pregnant ewes in medium pregnancy stage (second trimester). The 1st treatment was the control group which was not dosed at all, the 2nd treatment was orally dosed with 0.625 mg spirulina solution for each ewe, the 3rd treatment was orally dosed with 65 mg folic acid solution for each ewe, and the 4th treatment was orally dosed with 0.625 mg spirulina and 65 mg folic acid solution for each ewe. By using the mentioned proportions, Spirulina group (T2) showed a significant enhancement (P≤0.05) in ewes body weight gain, feed intake and growth rate, while the mixed treatment of folic acid and spirulina (T4) showed significant enhancement in feed intake and feed conversion ratio (FCR). On the other hand, dosing the ewes with these proportions did not show any appreciable differences in the traits of embryo number, twin number, pregnancy percentage, mortality percentage and newborns growth indicators.

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Ectoine, a biologically significant compound, was successfully produced by a strain of bacteria capable of utilizing sucrose. In a ground-breaking approach, we harnessed the potential of sugar beet molasses, a by-product rich in sucrose, amino acid, and vitamins, as a growth medium for this purpose. Through meticulous investigation, we identified the ideal conditions for maximizing ectoine synthesis. This remarkable milestone was reached by introducing only 1 g of (NH₄)₂SO₄ and 5 mL of molasses per liter, maintaining a pH level of 8.0, upholding a 7.5% NaCl concentration, employing agitation at 120 rpm, and sustaining a temperature of 30 °C. This study marks a pioneering endeavour as it represents the first instance where molasses has been effectively employed to produce ectoine through the cultivation of Nesterenkonia sp. We showcased the production of 75.56 g of the valuable compound ectoine utilizing 1 L of waste molasses with this specific bacterial strain. These findings hold tremendous promise, not only in terms of resource utilization but also for the potential applications of ectoine in various biological contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated suitable culture conditions for the production of the blue pigment phycocyanin (PC) from the unique filamentous cyanobacteria Pseudanabaena sp. ABRG5-3 and Limnothrix sp. SK1-2-1. White, green, or red LED irradiation at 30 μmol photons/m2/s was effective for phycocyanin production when compared with Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) sp. NIES-39, which is generally grown under high light irradiation. To investigate the safety of the cyanobacteria, ABRG5-3 cells were subjected to Ames (reverse mutation) tests and single oral-dose rat studies, which revealed non-mutagenic and non-toxic properties. When three purified phycocyanins (abPC, skPC, and spPC) were subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis, they showed different mobility, indicating that each phycocyanin has unique properties. abPC exhibited strong antiglycation activities as novel function. • We assessed cultivation conditions and phycocyanin production of 3 cyanobacteria. • We tested various light irradiation conditions in terms of quality and intensity. • We found that ABRG5-3 cells are non-mutagenetic and non-toxic. • Each phycocyanin has unique properties depending on bacterial species. • The phycocyanins showed strong antiglycation activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The creation of the internal combustion engine played a crucial role in the growth of the modern world to its current condition, which occurred at a faster speed than it had been previously. One of the numerous offshoots of a reciprocating engine is the source of inspiration for nearly every aspect of the modern society that we live in today. The relevance and necessity of engines, particularly in the transportation industry, have largely hidden the negative effects that engines have on the environment as a result of their emissions. This is especially true of the emissions that engines produce. A number of major issues have arisen as a consequence of this negligent application, including the release of greenhouse gases into the environment, the creation of situations that are hazardous to human health, and the depletion of fossil resources. Using methane-enriched hydrogen and spirulina microalgae biodiesel as low and high-reactive fuels, respectively, the objective of this work is to ascertain the characteristics of an RCCI engine that utilizes these fuels. Dimethyl ether, diesel, and microalgae spirulina biodiesel are combined in the following proportions in order to make eighty percent of the hydrogen refueling fuel (HRF): Dimethyl ether, diesel, and biodiesel make up 48% of the total. Variations will be made to the settings of the engine in order to explore the effects of using methane-enriched hydrogen as twenty percent of the low-reactive fuel. This fuel blend will be used. Methane to hydrogen ratios in the low reactive fuel blend can range anywhere from 1% to 5%, with concentrations of 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5% accordingly. The ratio can also be anywhere in between. The characteristics study is carried out by adjusting the speed at which the brakes are applied and the pressure at which the fuel is injected into the engine, all while maintaining the compression ratio at 17.5:1. The characteristics of the emissions of NO x , CO 2 , smoke, and hydrocarbon, as well as the features of the performances of BTE, BSFC, and EGT, are all included in this classification. The findings of the experiments indicate that the utilization of fuel mixtures has the potential to reduce the amount of emissions produced by engines while simultaneously enhancing the performance of the engines. • Discussed the role of hydrogen-methane blends on an RCCI engine. • Fuelled the engine spirulina microalgae biodiesel in dual-fuel mode. • Handled the performances of BTE, BSFC, and EGT, as well as the characteristics of the emissions of NO X, CO 2 , smoke, and HC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study examines the use of dairy wastewater to cultivate three types of microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Micractinium, and Chlorella. The research found that these algae can effectively remove nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus from industrial wastewater. Spirulina sp. and a mixed culture of all three algae performed best, significantly reducing nitrogen levels, while Chlorella sp. also removed a substantial amount of phosphorus. Additionally, microalgae treatment greatly reduced pathogens. These results suggest that microalgae could be a promising method for treating dairy wastewater and improving water quality. This study explores the novel use of mixed cultures of microalgae—Spirulina platensis, Micractinium, and Chlorella—for nutrient removal from dairy wastewater (DW). Microalgae were isolated from a local wastewater treatment plant and cultivated under various light conditions. The results showed significant biomass production, with mixed cultures achieving the highest biomass (2.51 g/L), followed by Spirulina (1.98 g/L) and Chlorella (1.92 g/L). Supplementing DW (75%) with BG medium (25%) significantly enhanced biomass and pH levels, improving pathogenic bacteria removal. Spirulina and mixed cultures exhibited high nitrogen removal efficiencies of 92.56% and 93.34%, respectively, while Chlorella achieved 86.85% nitrogen and 83.45% phosphorus removal. Although growth rates were lower under phosphorus-limited conditions, the microalgae adapted well to real DW, which is essential for effective algal harvesting. Phosphorus removal efficiencies ranged from 69.56% to 86.67%, with mixed cultures achieving the highest removal. Microbial and coliform removal efficiencies reached 97.81%, with elevated pH levels contributing to significant reductions in fecal E. coli and coliform levels. These findings suggest that integrating microalgae cultivation into DW treatment systems can significantly enhance nutrient and pathogen removal, providing a sustainable solution for wastewater management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The list of standard abbreviations for JDS is available at adsa.org/jds-abbreviations-24. Nonstandard abbreviations are available in the Notes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the interaction of dietary carbohydrate profile and soybean meal (SBM) replacement with either Chlorella pyrenoidosa (CHL) or Spirulina platensis (SPI) on in vitro fermentation. This experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design, with fermentation run (3 runs) considered as blocks. The treatments were arranged in a 2 × 5 factorial design, where the first factor was the carbohydrate profile, which was composed of diets containing 42.5% neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and 26.8% starch (HF-LS) or 26.8% NDF and 40.6% starch (LF-HS), and the second factor was the protein source, in which a control diet (100% SBM), partial replacement of SBM with CHL (1/2CHL) or SPI (1/2SPI), or total replacement of SBM with CHL or SPI were used. All experimental diets were formulated to have 17% crude protein. The ruminal fluid was collected from 2 lactating Holstein cows, buffered with Van Soest medium at a ratio of 1:2 and added to serum bottles containing 0.50 g of the experimental diets. Bottles were incubated at 39°C for 24 and 48 h in triplicate; headspace pressure was measured, along with gas collection for methane (CH 4) quantification at 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, 36, and 48 h after incubation. The final medium was used to measure pH, ammonia, and VFA. After incubation, feed bags were recovered and used for estimation of dry matter (DM), NDF, and organic matter (OM) degradability. Statistical analysis was carried out using the MIXED procedure of SAS, with carbohydrate profile, protein source, assay, and their interactions as fixed effects, with run and bottle as random effects. Orthogonal contrasts were used to compare carbohydrate profile, algae species, carbohydrate profile × algae interaction, and linear and quadratic effects of SBM replacement with CHL or SPI. There was no interaction effect between carbohydrate profile and algae source. The LF-HS improved gas production, degradability of nutrients, and VFA, mainly increasing the production of butyrate and propionate. When compared with CHL, SPI had a greater degradability of nutrients and branched VFA, along with reduction in total gas production and tended to reduce total CH 4 yield. The replacement of SBM with algae linearly reduced the degradability of nutrients, along with a linear reduction in gas production. When replacement of SBM with only SPI was evaluated, SPI slightly reduced the degradability of nutrients; however, it promoted a linear reduction in CH 4 yield, as well as reduction in CH 4 yield by unit of degraded DM, NDF, and OM. In summary, there was no interaction of carbohydrate profile and protein source, which means that SBM replacement had a similar effect, regardless of dietary carbohydrate profile. Spirulina may be a more suitable algae source than Chlorella due to the potential to reduce CH 4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an innovative bio‐dairy product, yoghurt was enriched with Spirulina‐encapsulated aqueous/hydroalcoholic extracts of pomegranate peel (PP). Some metabolomics, antioxidative, textural and colour properties of bio‐yoghurt samples were investigated. The samples with Spirulina (YM) and PP (YPA) had the highest lactic, citric and uric acid. The aroma profile of the samples was affected encapsulation process and storage time. The values on day 1 and day 21 were 17.84–17.04 mg/kg for acetaldehyde, 0.98–0.90 mg/kg for diacetyl and 54.42–46.65 mg/kg for acetoin. The sample with encapsulated PP aqueous extract (YEPA) had the highest TPC (2.97 mg GAE/g), and the sample with PP aqueous extract (YPA) had the highest antioxidant capacity (0.36 mg TE/g). The present study describes that bio‐yoghurt enriched with Spirulina‐encapsulated PP could be considered a good alternative for consumers demanding functional dairy products and a holistic approach to a circular bioeconomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phycocyanin is an interesting alternative to synthetic food colorants. Various methods to obtain phycocyanin from Arthrospira (Spirulina) biomass have been described in the literature, including ultrasonication, glass bead extraction and freeze-thawing. In this study, three optimized procedures were implemented to assess their efficacy in obtaining phycocyanin from Arthrospira maxima biomass, facilitating a comparative analysis of their effectiveness. After harvesting the biomass, extraction processes were conducted utilizing ultrasonication followed by flocculation with chitosan in various organic acid solutions, as well as glass bead extraction and freeze-thawing techniques, each followed by centrifugation. The obtained extracts were analyzed spectrophotometrically across the wavelength range of 280 to 800 nm. The freeze-thawing method yielded the highest C-PC contents at 17.03 ± 0.53%, followed closely by the ultrasonication method at 15.21 ± 0.41%. The highest purity of 2.02 ± 0.01 was attained through ultrasonication and subsequent flocculation with chitosan in acetic acid. Conversely, employing chitosan dissolved in citric or lactic acid for flocculation resulted in greenish extracts containing high amounts of chlorophyll. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bioavailability of Arthrospira platensis as an antioxidant in fish oil after fermentation and microencapsulation process was investigated in this study. Unfermented and fermented A. platensis (Spirulina) were dried in a spray dryer with different ratios of maltodextrin and the powdered Spirulina samples were added to fish oil at a rate of 2% to monitor oxidative stability. Following the BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) added group, unfermented and fermented Spirulina samples and those coated with equal amounts of maltodextrin showed the lowest peroxide values and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance values. On the other hand, according to p-anisidine and Totox (total oxidation) assessments, all Spirulina-added groups were at least as effective as BHT in preventing lipid oxidation. At the end of storage, total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content was determined as 21.09% in the control group without antioxidants and 28.75% in the group with BHT added. However, in all other Spirulina added groups (unfermented, fermented and microencapsulated groups), total PUFA content was in the range of 27.671-29.72%. As a result, it was found that both the dried forms of Spirulina alone and dried with coating material were effective in delaying lipid oxidation. However, the fermented forms showed no additional effect on lipid stability compared to the unfermented ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is focused on the development and characterization of a series of biodegradable and eco-friendly colour masterbatches (MBs), based on natural pigments and biodegradable polylactic acid (PLA) and polybutylene succinate (PBS). Four commercial natural pigments were used, spirulina, curcumin, beetroot and chlorophyllin, to develop the colour masterbatches using a twin-screw extruder. The natural pigment-based MBs were added at 2, 4 and 6 wt%, as additives to study the effect on the properties of injected biodegradable parts (PLA and PBS). The injected samples were characterized in terms of their mechanical (tensile and Charpy impact tests) and visual properties (according to CieLab). In addition, the ageing of the coloured material was followed by colorimetric analysis after its exposure under a Xenon lamp. The mechanical results showed that the addition of coloured masterbatches in different percentages (2–6 wt%) did not significantly change the properties of the materials with respect to the as-received ones. A noticeable colour difference in the injected samples was observed after the first 50 h of artificial light exposure. Regarding environmental concerns, the study showed that the carbon footprint of natural pigments and electricity consumption during extrusion and pelletizing were lower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Spirulina is a highly nutritious microalgae commonly used as a food additive. During fermentation, different adjuncts are incorporated to act as a nutrient source for yeast and fortify or modify the sensory attributes of the final product. In this study, the effect of Spirulina on the characteristics of controlled yeast fermentation and the production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) was analyzed. Spirulina was added to malted barley during mashing and fermented under standard conditions. An unaltered mash (negative control) and yeast extract (positive control) were also fermented. The addition of Spirulina resulted in an increased fermentation rate (~14% faster) and bigger yeast cells (~34% larger) in comparison to the negative control. There were differences in color (determined as SRM) between treatments; however, there were only minor differences in VOCs, with no statistical differences observed between chemical compound groups. No differences were observed in the pH, total number of yeast cells, or final attenuation between treatments. The primary mechanism for the observed differences is believed to be an increase in amino acids available to yeast that were contributed by the Spirulina. This shows both that Spirulina has a high potential as a fermentation adjunct and that the amino acid profile of an adjunct can significantly impact fermentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to evaluate the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) tracer technique for estimating methane (CH4) emissions in dual-flow continuous culture systems (DFCCS). In experiment 1 (Exp1), fermenters were filled with water, and known CH4 concentrations (0, 1.35, 2.93, or 4.43 g/d) were injected using permeation tubes with SF6 release rates (3.30 or 9.65 mg/d). Headspace gas was collected using canisters, and the SF6 technique estimated CH4 recovery. Experiment 2 (Exp2) involved a DFCCS fermentation trial with ruminal fluid from three Holstein cows, testing diets with soybean meal or its partial replacement (50%) by Chlorella or Spirulina. Headspace gas was collected at intervals post-feeding. Standard curves for SF6 and CH4 quantification were inadequate for DFCCS samples, with the CH4:SF6 ratio differing from standards, indicating the data needs further SF6 release rate evaluation. In Exp1, a high correlation (r = 0.97) was found between infused and calculated CH4, indicating good repeatability. Low and high SF6 rates performed similarly at low CH4 infusion, but high SF6 overestimated CH4 at high infusion. Exp2 showed CH4 emissions irrespective of SF6 rate and indicated reduced CH4 emissions and increased NDF degradation with algae-containing diets. Further evaluation of the SF6 tracer technique is warranted for DFCCS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the biofloc technology (BFT) system and the replacement of fish meal with Spirulina biomass on productive performance, intestinal histomorphometry, plasma biochemistry, and oxidative stress of Nile tilapia juveniles (Oreochromis niloticus) fed suboptimal levels of protein. Two factors were evaluated: production systems (clear water × BFT) and replacement of fish meal with Spirulina (0, 33, 66 e 100%). The design was in a 2 × 4 randomized factorial scheme with four replications, and the fish were evaluated for 48 days. Four isoproteic (28% crude protein) diets were formulated with gross energy values close to 4300 kcal kg−1. Nile tilapia juveniles (0.23 ± 0.01 g) were distributed in 16 circular tanks (70 L) at seven fish/tank. The diets were formulated with protein levels approximately 20% below that required for the species and life stage. No interaction was observed between the factors evaluated (production systems × Spirulina inclusion). Rearing the fish in the BFT system avoided the adverse effects of diets with suboptimal protein levels on performance, intestinal histomorphometry, and protein metabolism. Lower values lower lipid peroxidation and higher antioxidant capacity were observed in fish reared in the BFT system, showing evidence of improvements in antioxidant responses and lower levels of physiological oxidative stress. Spirulina completely replaced fish meal in the diets of Nile tilapia juveniles without adverse effects on intestinal morphometry, protein metabolism, and antioxidant response. Replacing 66% of fish meal with Spirulina improved the productive performance, regardless of the rearing system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research was to study the effects of different feed formulas on the growth of Spirulina and water quality in terms of temperature, pH and light intensity. The experiment was designed with completely randomized design (CRD), divided into 3 sets of treatments with different feed formulas with 3 replicates, using formula 1(Zarrouk’s medium as control formula); formula 2(Zarrouk’s medium mixed with 100 ml/1,000 ml of rice straw ferment liquid), and formula 3(Zarrouk’s medium mixed with 200 ml/1,000 ml of rice straw ferment liquid) with 10 days cultured period provided with 24-hour light cycle. The growth efficiency was measured by measuring the average of Optical Density (OD), using a spectrophotometer at the wavelength of 560 nm. The results showed that the growth rate of Spirulina cultured with formula 1 was a statistically significantly different level of 95 % confidence (p<0.05) with, the growth rate of Spirulina cultured with formula 2 and 3. While the growth rate of Spirulina cultured with formulas 2 and 3 was not statistically different at a statistical significance level of 95 % confidence (p>0.05). In terms of water quality throughout the Spirulina culture, the temperature and pH values were in the range of 26.80±0.53 - 32.40±0.30 °C and 9.46±0.05 - 10.12±0.09, while the light intensity values were in the range of 1,125 - 1,950 lux, respectively [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]