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Despite rapid evolution across eutherian mammals, the X-linked MIR-506 family miRNAs are located in a region flanked by two highly conserved protein-coding genes (SLITRK2 and FMR1) on the X chromosome. Intriguingly, these miRNAs are predominantly expressed in the testis, suggesting a potential role in spermatogenesis and male fertility. Here, we report that the X-linked MIR-506 family miRNAs were derived from the MER91C DNA transposons. Selective inactivation of individual miRNAs or clusters caused no discernible defects, but simultaneous ablation of five clusters containing 19 members of the MIR-506 family led to reduced male fertility in mice. Despite normal sperm counts, motility, and morphology, the KO sperm were less competitive than wild-type sperm when subjected to a polyandrous mating scheme. Transcriptomic and bioinformatic analyses revealed that these X-linked MIR-506 family miRNAs, in addition to targeting a set of conserved genes, have more targets that are critical for spermatogenesis and embryonic development during evolution. Our data suggest that the MIR-506 family miRNAs function to enhance sperm competitiveness and reproductive fitness of the male by finetuning gene expression during spermatogenesis.

Objective: To support the declining wild population of Delta Smelt, a conservation hatchery has expanded its mission from maintaining a backup population as insurance against extinction to also producing fish for release into the wild. The substantially higher production demands require a balance between producing large numbers of fish while adhering to conservation genetic principles that maximize retention of effective population size (Ne) and thus overall diversity. Methods: We performed spawning experiments at the hatchery to evaluate the genetic consequences of two spawning strategies: (1) a pooled strategy where we fertilized premixed eggs from three dams with premixed milt from three sires and (2) a partial-factorial strategy where eggs from three dams were mixed and then apportioned among three containers, each container then receiving milt from one sire. We used genetic parentage analysis of larval offspring to determine the reproductive success of spawners in 10 replicate crosses of each strategy. Result: The contributions of parents to offspring were more even in partial-factorial crosses and consequently resulted in higher Ne (average Ne = 5.50 ± 0.38; expected Ne = 6.0), suggesting its potential for maintaining genetic diversity over time. In contrast, our pooled spawning experiment produced lower and more variable Ne values (average Ne = 3.86 ± 1.30), demonstrating that this more efficient method of production entails high costs in terms of long-term genetic management. Treating our experiments as hypothetical pools of fish for release, we combined the Ne values for pooled or partial-factorial crosses to calculate the effective size of a release population (NeR). Unequal family sizes reduced NeR for our pooled experiment to half of the expected value, whereas the partial-factorial experiment NeR was 88% of the expected value. Conclusion: We discuss the benefits and risks of each method and how these can be considered when designing a spawning strategy for Delta Smelt supplementation.

ABSTRACT Long matings are abundant in insects despite the range of the costs involved. The causes and consequences of the evolution of long mating remain an interesting problem for behavioural ecologists. We studied extraordinarily long mating that involves repeated intromissions interspersed with latent periods in the Parthenium beetle (Zygogramma bicolorata). We conducted a series of interrupted mating assays to examine the fitness consequences of different components of this curious mating behaviour. We tested multiple adaptive hypotheses concerning male fertility and competitive ability. We found that sperm transfer and fertility did not exhibit a linear increase with the number of intromissions. There was also no evidence of nutrient transfer by the males. Interestingly, our results showed that both sexes suffered a significant cost of long mating. Further, female remating behaviour was found to be modulated by the length of the previous mating. Additionally, males were observed performing a curious leg rubbing behaviour during the inter‐intromission latent period, putatively serving as a copulatory courtship function that reduced female resistance to the continuance of mating. Therefore, we show that while the long mating may still serve a mate‐guarding role, there are additional fitness effects of such behaviour that need careful consideration. Our study provides insights into the adaptive significance of long mating and its fitness consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many species exhibit alternative mating tactics (ARTs), with larger socially dominant males competing for females and smaller males adopting "sneaker" strategies to exploit fertilisation opportunities without competition or courtship. Females typically prefer larger socially dominant males, but their ability to manipulate mating or fertilisation outcomes is largely unknown. Here, using chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, we examined whether the female's ovarian fluid (OF) differentially influences the temporal patterns of sperm swimming traits in ejaculates from non-preferred sneaker ('parr') and preferred (dominant) males. Results demonstrate that OF improves sperm swimming speed and linearity compared to river water, regardless of male mating tactic. We report a novel tactic-specific difference in sperm linearity in which parr male sperm initially maintain straighter trajectories in river water, compared to dominant males, but then rapidly change to less linear and more circular paths over time. Intriguingly, we show that OF counteracts this change in sperm linearity in parr males so that patterns become indistinguishable from dominants when parr sperm swim in OF. Together, these results show that male chinook salmon exhibit differential sperm trait investment strategies depending on reproductive tactic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Females control the paternity of their offspring by selectively mating with males they perceive to be of high quality. In species where females mate with multiple males in succession, females may bias offspring paternity by favoring the sperm of one male over another, a process known as cryptic female choice. 1 While evidence of cryptic female choice exists in multiple taxa, the mechanisms underlying this process have remained difficult to unravel. 2 Understanding cryptic female choice requires demonstration of a female-driven post-mating bias in sperm use and paternity and a causal link between this bias and male cues. 3 In this study, we present evidence of cryptic female choice in female Drosophila melanogaster. Through experiments utilizing transgenic males expressing fluorescent sperm, we observed that exposure to attractive males between matings prompts females to expel the ejaculate of their initial mate more rapidly than in the presence of less attractive males. While doing so, females exhibit a bias in sperm storage against their first mate, thereby favoring the paternity of their subsequent mate. Our findings reveal that females adjust the timing of ejaculate expulsion in response to male pheromones in their environment, specifically heptanal and 11- cis -vaccenyl acetate, which are sensed by females through specific odorant receptors. We provide a cryptic female choice mechanism allowing a female to modulate the share of paternity of her first mate depending on the sensing of the quality of potential mates in her environment. These findings showcase that paternity can be influenced by events beyond copulation. [Display omitted] • D. melanogaster females exert cryptic mate choice • Females eject their first mate's ejaculate faster in the presence of attractive males • Females exposed to attractive males bias sperm storage against their first mate • Male pheromones heptanal and cVA are sufficient to shorten ejection latency Doubovetzky et al. present evidence of cryptic female choice in Drosophila melanogaster. Females exposed to pheromones of attractive males expedite ejaculate ejection from their first mate, favoring subsequent mates' sperm. This work highlights that female fruit flies can influence paternity of their offspring through post-copulatory mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybridisation is a complex process that begins with mating. Females have more to lose with each hybrid fertilisation than males, so they should avoid it. Even if females choose con‐specific males as preferred mates, they often cannot control which additional males release sperm during spawning. Polyandry is ubiquitous and may result in hetero‐specific sperm competition between males of different species. In such cases, cryptic female choice (the ability to bias paternity towards certain males under sperm competition) is the last line of defence to prevent hybridisation of her eggs and is highly adaptive if it enables con‐specific sperm preference. Such seems to be the case with the hybridisation of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (S. trutta) in their native Europe. Under hetero‐specific sperm competition, hybrid fertilisations in these fish are reported to be reduced via ovarian fluid‐mediated cryptic female choice. It is not known, however, whether the strength of this mechanism is dependent on reinforcement and thus, the historical sympatry/allopatry of hybridising populations. Brown trout are one of the world's worst invasive species. Ecological impacts arise through competition with other species (e.g. Galaxids in the southern hemisphere, Oncorhynchus in western North America). Eastern North America contains native salmonids that evolved in the absence of brown trout but have gametes that are compatible. The 140 ‐year‐old brown trout invasion of Newfoundland is ground zero to study these potential interactions. Their relatively low spread rate across the island may be the result of inherent poor productivity, but data suggest it could also be a function of hybridisation with native Atlantic salmon and brook char (Salvelinus fontinalis). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual selection is not a single process. Instead, multiple processes of sexual selection can interact with respect to a given phenotype, in either reinforcing, independent, or conflicting directions. Here we consider how different processes of sexual selection interact in the seed bug Lygaeus simulans. This species is characterised by limited pre‐copulatory sexual selection, but the potential for rather strong post‐copulatory sexual selection. In particular, mating failure is common in this species, with around 40%–60% of copulations failing to result in the successful transfer of sperm. Mating failure is negatively correlated with female size, with smaller females being less likely to end up inseminated. We have recently argued that this pattern is best explained by cryptic male mate choice for large, more fecund females. Males therefore preferentially inseminate larger females. Here we explore how this potential cryptic male choice interacts with another component of post‐copulatory sexual selection: sperm competition. We first manipulated male and female size variation, generating large and small, male and female, size classes. Using a visible mutant marker to assign paternity, we then double‐mated females with males, in all combinations of male and female size. Our results showed that sperm competition outcomes were primarily driven by copulation duration, with longer copulations leading to greater paternity share for a male. We also confirmed that larger females are more likely to produce offspring than smaller females, as predicted by cryptic male choice for large females. This effect was again linked to copulation duration, with longer copulations less likely to lead to mating failure. While larger males tended to be more successful in sperm competition, especially if copulating second, female size had little effect on paternity, suggesting that cryptic male choice and sperm competition are acting relatively independently in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: For the sterile insect technique to be successful, sterile male mosquitoes need to outcompete fertile males and mate with wild females. Some female insects, however, have been shown to be able to select for "better sperm" to secure high-quality offspring. This study used stable isotopes to mark the sperm of sterile and fertile males to find any evidence of female tiger mosquitoes selecting the fertile sperm over the sterile one when mated by both types of males. Although this study does not prove that a complex mechanism of sperm selection does not occur, we were not able to find any evidence that double-mated Aedes albopictus females favor fertile sperm for egg fertilization. The key to success in the application of the sterile insect technique (SIT) relies on the ability of released, sterile males to outcompete their fertile wild male counterparts to mate with wild females. However, many insect species exhibit multiple-mating behavior, which can be a way for females to select paternity for their progeny. This study aims to recognize the consequences of potential double-matings during an SIT program and to detect any evidence of sperm selection favoring sperm from fertile mates. This report provides a descriptive analysis of the storage and use of sperm by female Aedes albopictus. Stable isotopes were used to mark the sperm of fertile and sterile males. Mated females were allowed to oviposit before dissecting the spermathecae to link the presence of each type of sperm to the sterility of the eggs laid. It was found that sperm in females inseminated by both males was distributed in the three spermathecae with no obvious pattern, mostly mixed but also separately, and no evidence of any mechanism for sperm selection, sperm precedence, or sperm competition in Ae. albopictus females could be found. The fact that only a few double-mated females were double-inseminated and could also produce semi-sterile eggs, together with the finding that the sperm of sterile males appeared to be no less viable than that of fertile males, is an encouraging outcome for SIT approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One yet unresolved question in the study of mating system evolution is the occurrence of mating failure, when individuals go through their lives without successfully mating. This includes the failure to produce offspring even following copulation, for instance due to insemination or fertilisation failure. Copulations are costly in a variety of ways, but also a fundamental route to fitness in sexual species, and so we should expect that engaging in copulations that generate no offspring should be strongly selected against. Nonetheless, it has become apparent that mating failure is quite common in nature. Here we consider post‐copulatory sexual selection in Lygaeus simulans seed bugs to test the hypothesis that the high levels of mating failure found in this species (approximately 40%–60%) are caused by cryptic male choice (i.e. males choosing not to inseminate a female during copulation). In our first experiment, we found that mating failure depended on female size, but not male size, with smaller females experiencing mating failure more frequently. Mechanistically this is likely to be due to copulation duration, as shorter copulations were more likely to lead to mating failure. Likewise, copulations with smaller females were shorter. In our second and third experiments, rates of mating failure decreased when pairs were allowed to repeatedly interact with the same partner over longer durations (hours through to days), implying that mating failure is not primarily caused by infertility or chronic mechanical failure. Instead, our results strongly suggest cryptic male choice as the cause of mating failure in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theoretically, males should increase their ejaculate expenditure when the probability of sperm competition occurring (or risk) is high but decrease ejaculate expenditure as the number of competing ejaculates (or intensity) increases. Here we examine whether male decorated crickets (Gryllodes sigillatus) use cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) transferred to females by rival males at mating to assess the risk and intensity of sperm competition and adjust their ejaculate accordingly. Unmated females and those perfumed with CHCs extracted from one, three, or five males could be distinguished chemically, providing a reliable cue of the risk and intensity of sperm competition. In agreement with theory, males mating with these females increased sperm number with the risk of sperm competition and decreased sperm number with the intensity of sperm competition. Similarly, as the risk of sperm competition increased, males produced a larger and more attractive spermatophylax (an important non-sperm component of the ejaculate) but these traits did not vary with the intensity of sperm competition. Our results therefore demonstrate that both sperm and non-sperm components of the male ejaculate respond to the risk and intensity of sperm competition in different ways and that CHCs provide males with an important cue to strategically tailor their ejaculate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Many species exhibit alternative mating tactics (ARTs), with larger socially dominant males competing for females and smaller males adopting “sneaker” strategies to exploit fertilisation opportunities without competition or courtship. Females typically prefer larger socially dominant males, but their ability to manipulate mating or fertilisation outcomes is largely unknown. Here, using chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, we examined whether the female’s ovarian fluid (OF) differentially influences the temporal patterns of sperm swimming traits in ejaculates from non-preferred sneaker (‘parr’) and preferred (dominant) males. Results demonstrate that OF improves sperm swimming speed and linearity compared to river water, regardless of male mating tactic. We report a novel tactic-specific difference in sperm linearity in which parr male sperm initially maintain straighter trajectories in river water, compared to dominant males, but then rapidly change to less linear and more circular paths over time. Intriguingly, we show that OF counteracts this change in sperm linearity in parr males so that patterns become indistinguishable from dominants when parr sperm swim in OF. Together, these results show that male chinook salmon exhibit differential sperm trait investment strategies depending on reproductive tactic.

Sexual selection has been a popular subject within evolutionary biology because of its central role in explaining odd and counterintuitive traits observed in nature. Consequently, the literature associated with this field of study became vast. Meta‐analytical studies attempting to draw inferences from this literature have now accumulated, varying in scope and quality, thus calling for a synthesis of these syntheses. We conducted a systematic literature search to create a systematic map with a report appraisal of meta‐analyses on topics associated with sexual selection, aiming to identify the conceptual and methodological gaps in this secondary literature. We also conducted bibliometric analyses to explore whether these gaps are associated with the gender and origin of the authors of these meta‐analyses. We included 152 meta‐analytical studies in our systematic map. We found that most meta‐analyses focused on males and on certain animal groups (e.g. birds), indicating severe sex and taxonomic biases. The topics in these studies varied greatly, from proximate (e.g. relationship of ornaments with other traits) to ultimate questions (e.g. formal estimates of sexual selection strength), although the former were more common. We also observed several common methodological issues in these studies, such as lack of detailed information regarding searches, screening, and analyses, which ultimately impairs the reliability of many of these meta‐analyses. In addition, most of the meta‐analyses' authors were men affiliated to institutions from developed countries, pointing to both gender and geographical authorship biases. Most importantly, we found that certain authorship aspects were associated with conceptual and methodological issues in meta‐analytical studies. Many of our findings might simply reflect patterns in the current state of the primary literature and academia, suggesting that our study can serve as an indicator of issues within the field of sexual selection at large. Based on our findings, we provide both conceptual and analytical recommendations to improve future studies in the field of sexual selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animals can adjust their consumption of different nutrients to adaptively match their current or expected physiological state. Changes in diet preference can arise from social and sexual experience. For example, in female Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies, a single mating triggers a behavioural switch in diet choice towards increased protein intake and total food consumption, which supports offspring production. In contrast, male diet choice appears to be unaffected by a single mating. However, one mating may not fully capture the impact of mating on male feeding behaviour. Males can often mate multiply in natural settings, and the costs of ejaculate production and energetic courtship may be cumulative, such that males might experience increased nutritional demands only after multiple matings. In this study we tested this prediction by measuring the effect of multiple matings on the diet choice of male D. melanogaster fruit flies. Males were assigned to one of three mating treatments, unmated, mated once or mated five times consecutively, and then allowed to feed freely on chemically defined diets of protein and carbohydrate. In contrast to the prediction, we found that males that mated five times did not alter the amount of food, or the proportion of protein and carbohydrate consumed, when compared with unmated or once-mated males. This absence of a feeding response occurred despite substantial ejaculate depletion from multiple matings: males sired fewer offspring in each consecutive mating. These results reveal a lack of plasticity in male feeding behaviour according to mating status, despite substantial potential physiological costs, and highlight the remarkably distinct nutritional ecologies of males versus females. • Female fruit flies show altered diet preference following mating. • However, dietary responses to mating in males are largely unknown. • We tested the impact of realistic mating rates on male fruit fly diet choice. • Males do not alter food intake to recoup depleted ejaculate, despite fertility loss. • These results highlight key sex differences in diet choice following mating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Darwin–Bateman paradigm predicts that females enhance their fitness by being choosy and mating with high‐quality males, while males should compete to mate with as many females as possible. In many species, males enhance their fitness by defending females and/or resources used by females. That is, males directly defend access to mating opportunities. However, paternity analyses have repeatedly shown that females in most species mate polyandrously, which contradicts traditional expectations that male defensive behaviours lead to monandry. Here, in an extensive meta‐analysis, encompassing 109 species and 1026 effect sizes from across the animal kingdom, we tested if the occurrence of defensive behaviours modulates sexual selection on females and males. If so, we can illuminate the extent to which males really succeed in defending access to mating and fertilisation opportunities. We used four different indices of the opportunity for sexual selection that comprise pre‐mating and/or post‐mating episodes of selection. We found, for both sexes, that the occurrence of defensive behaviours does not modulate the potential strength of sexual selection. This implies that male defensive behaviours do not predict the true intensity of sexual selection. While the most extreme levels of sexual selection on males are in species with male defensive behaviours, which indicates that males do sometimes succeed in restricting females' re‐mating ability (e.g. elephant seals, Mirounga leonina), estimates of the opportunity for sexual selection vary greatly across species, regardless of whether or not defensive behaviours occur. Indeed, widespread polyandry shows that females are usually not restricted by male defensive behaviours. In addition, our results indicate that post‐mating episodes of selection, such as cryptic female choice and sperm competition, might be important factors modulating the opportunity for sexual selection. We discuss: (i) why male defensive behaviours fail to lower the opportunity for sexual selection among females or fail to elevate it for males; (ii) how post‐mating events might influence sexual selection; and (iii) the role of females as active participants in sexual selection. We also highlight that inadequate data reporting in the literature prevented us from extracting effect sizes from many studies that had presumably collected the relevant data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The karyotype of an organism is the set of gross features that characterize the way the genome is packaged into separate chromosomes. It has been known for decades that different taxonomic groups often have distinct karyotypic features, but whether selective forces act to maintain these differences over evolutionary timescales is an open question. In this paper we analyze a database of karyotype features and sperm head morphology in 103 mammal species with spatulate sperm heads and 90 sauropsid species (birds and non-avian reptiles) with vermiform heads. We find that mammal species with a larger head area have more chromosomes, while sauropsid species with longer heads have a wider range of chromosome lengths. These results remain significant after controlling for genome size, so sperm head morphology is the relevant variable. This suggest that post-copulatory sexual selection, by acting on sperm head shape, can influence genome architecture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experimental research and theoretical models question the Darwin-Bateman paradigm that male reproductive success is just limited by the number of mates. Males have evolved tactics to tailor ejaculates among their mates to maximise fitness. Males are expected to be choosy and to bias ejaculate investment depending on the perceived quality of females (cryptic male choice) and/or the reproductive social context. We investigated ejaculate allocation strategy in Lobesia botrana, a mostly monandrous moth, depending on male size, female size, and their interaction, the latter effect being usually overlooked in most studies. The explained variables were absolute ejaculate size (spermatophore volume) and relative ejaculate size (ejaculate size to lifetime ejaculate expenditure ratio). Absolute ejaculate allocation analysis showed that: (1) ejaculate expenditure increases with male size; (2) males tailor greater ejaculates to larger than smaller females; and (3) there was no interaction between male size and female size, so small and large males tailored equivalent increases in ejaculate volume per female weight unit. Quite differently, relative ejaculate allocation analysis showed that: (1) small males invest comparatively more than large males in females of similar size; and (2) there was an interaction between female size and male size, so small males invest comparatively more than large males when mated with large females. Results are discussed in the framework of strategic ejaculate allocation from an evolutionary perspective, as ecological variables, including the current climate change scenario, may promote coexistence in the field of quite different-sized adults in this moth species. Significance statement: Available evidence supports that insects and other animals, including humans, exhibit strategic ejaculate allocation, which is shaped by an array of factors related to mate quality and reproductive social context. Among them, female size is especially important, as it positively correlates with fecundity and thereby largely regulates male fitness returns. We studied the ejaculate allocation pattern in the European grapevine moth, a usually monandrous species. We show that, in addition to female size, male size and male-by-female size interaction are critical drivers of ejaculate allocation. However, the interpretation of the results must be done carefully, as they may differ substantially depending on whether male investment is measured in absolute or relative terms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sperm competition is a potent mechanism of postcopulatory sexual selection that has been found to shape reproductive morphologies and behaviours in promiscuous animals. Especially sperm size has been argued to evolve in response to sperm competition through its effect on sperm longevity, sperm motility, the ability to displace competing sperm, and ultimately fertilization success. Additionally, sperm size has been observed to co-evolve with female reproductive morphology. Theoretical work predicts that sperm competition may select for longer sperm but may also favour shorter sperm if sperm size trades-off with number. In this study, we studied the relationship between sperm size and postmating success in the free-living flatworm, Macrostomum lignano. Specifically, we used inbred isolines of M. lignano that varied in sperm size to investigate how sperm size translated into the ability of worms to transfer and deposit sperm in a mating partner. Our results revealed a hump-shaped relationship with individuals producing sperm of intermediate size having the highest sperm competitiveness. This finding broadens our understanding of the evolution of sperm morphology by providing empirical support for stabilizing selection on sperm size under sperm competition. Graphical Abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Male seminal fluid proteins often show signs of positive selection and divergent evolution, believed to reflect male–female coevolution. Yet, our understanding of the predicted concerted evolution of seminal fluid proteins and female reproductive proteins is limited. We sequenced, assembled, and annotated the genome of two species of seed beetles allowing a comparative analysis of four closely related species of these herbivorous insects. We compare the general pattern of evolution in genes encoding seminal fluid proteins and female reproductive proteins with those in digestive protein genes and well-conserved reference genes. We found that female reproductive proteins showed an overall ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions (ω) similar to that of conserved genes, while seminal fluid proteins and digestive proteins exhibited higher overall ω values. Further, seminal fluid proteins and digestive proteins showed a higher proportion of sites putatively under positive selection, and explicit tests showed no difference in relaxed selection between protein types. Evolutionary rate covariation analyses showed that evolutionary rates among seminal fluid proteins were on average more closely correlated with those in female reproductive proteins than with either digestive or conserved genes. Gene expression showed the expected negative covariation with ω values, except for male-biased genes where this negative relationship was reversed. In conclusion, seminal fluid proteins showed relatively rapid evolution and signs of positive selection. In contrast, female reproductive proteins evolved at a lower rate under selective constraints, on par with genes known to be well conserved. Although our findings provide support for concerted evolution of seminal fluid proteins and female reproductive proteins, they also suggest that these two classes of proteins evolve under partly distinct selective regimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Males often strategically adjust the number of available sperm based on the social context (i.e. sperm priming response), but it remains unclear how environmental and genetic factors shape this adjustment. In freshwater ecosystems, high ambient temperatures often lead to isolated pools of hotter water in which inbreeding occurs. Higher water temperatures and inbreeding can impair fish development, potentially disrupting sperm production. We used guppies (Poecilia reticulata) to investigate how developmental temperature (26 °C, 30 °C) and male inbreeding status (inbred, outbred) influence their sperm priming response. We also tested if sperm priming was affected by whether the female was a relative (sister) and whether she was inbred or outbred. There was no effect of rearing temperature; male inbreeding status alone determined the number of available sperm in response to female presence, her inbreeding status, and her relatedness. Inbred males produced significantly more sperm in the presence of an unrelated, outbred female than when no female was present. Conversely, outbred males did not alter the number of sperm available in response to female presence or relatedness. Moreover, inbred males produced marginally more sperm when exposed to an unrelated female that was outbred rather than inbred, but there was no difference when exposed to an inbred female that was unrelated versus related. Together, a sperm priming response was only observed in inbred males when exposed to an outbred female. Outbred females in our study were larger than inbred females, suggesting that inbred males strategically allocated ejaculate resources toward females in better condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Male–male contests for access to females or breeding resources are critical in determining male reproductive success. Larger males and those with more effective weaponry are more likely to win fights. However, even after controlling for such predictors of fighting ability, studies have reported a winner–loser effect: previous winners are more likely to win subsequent contests, while losers often suffer repeated defeats. While the effect of winning–losing is well-documented for the outcome of future fights, its effect on other behaviors (e.g. mating) remains poorly investigated. Here, we test whether a winning versus losing experience influenced subsequent behaviors of male mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) toward rivals and potential mates. We housed focal males with either a smaller or larger opponent for 24 h to manipulate their fighting experience to become winners or losers, respectively. The focal males then underwent tests that required them to enter and swim through a narrow corridor to reach females, bypassing a cylinder that contained either a larger rival male (competitive scenario), a juvenile or was empty (non-competitive scenarios). The tests were repeated after 1 wk. Winners were more likely to leave the start area and to reach the females, but only when a larger rival was presented, indicating higher levels of risk-taking behavior in aggressive interactions. This winner–loser effect persisted for at least 1 wk. We suggest that male mosquitofish adjust their assessment of their own and/or their rival's fighting ability following contests in ways whose detection by researchers depends on the social context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexually cannibalized males incur a significant fitness cost due to the loss of future mating opportunities and are expected to evolve behaviors to avoid or compensate for such costs. For example, partially cannibalized males may exhibit mate guarding, in which they accompany the female to prevent her from mating with another male. In some species, cannibalized males prolong the duration of copulation. However, little is known about the adaptive significance of the mating behavior of sexually cannibalized males. We hypothesized that mating itself serves a mate guarding function, and that behavioral change caused by cannibalism enhances the mate guarding function. We tested these hypotheses using the polyandrous and sexually cannibalistic praying mantid Tenodera angustipennis, with decapitation as a model of sexual cannibalism. We compared latencies to female mating with a rival male among three experimental treatments: unmated treatment, noncannibalistic mating treatment, and cannibalistic mating treatment. Mating itself delayed female remating, revealing its function in mate guarding. Decapitated males exhibited a higher guarding efficiency against rival males via firmer genital coupling. In addition, spermatophore attached to the female genital opening also delayed female remating, revealing an additional function in postmating mate guarding. Although copulation was prolonged due to decapitation, mating by a rival male was not delayed compared to noncannibalistic mating, probably because of weaker postcopulatory guarding. These findings suggest that greater mate guarding by decapitated males during copulation was offset by processes after copulation. Significance statement: Sexually cannibalized males die and lose the chance for future mating. This means that males that can avoid or compensate for this fitness loss may be favored. We examined this possibility by focusing on the postmating behavior of sexually cannibalized male mantises. Experimental analysis revealed that cannibalized males grasped the female more firmly during copulation to avoid disruption by other males, and prolonged copulation duration compared with noncannibalized males. These behavioral changes by cannibalized males contributed to delaying female remating with other males to the same extent as noncannibalized males. This suggests that sexually cannibalized males did not fully compensate for the loss of future mating opportunities. Stronger mate guarding via firm genital coupling and prolonged copulation duration in cannibalized males may be offset by weaker postcopulatory guarding such as shorter duration of copulatory plug attachment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plutella xylostella exhibits exceptional reproduction ability, yet the genetic basis underlying the high reproductive capacity remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that an orphan gene, lushu , which encodes a sperm protein, plays a crucial role in male reproductive success. Lushu is located on the Z chromosome and is prevalent across different P. xylostella populations worldwide. We subsequently generated lushu mutants using transgenic CRISPR/Cas9 system. Knockout of Lushu results in reduced male mating efficiency and accelerated death in adult males. Furthermore, our findings highlight that the deficiency of lushu reduced the transfer of sperms from males to females, potentially resulting in hindered sperm competition. Additionally, the knockout of Lushu results in disrupted gene expression in energy-related pathways and elevated insulin levels in adult males. Our findings reveal that male reproductive performance has evolved through the birth of a newly evolved, lineage-specific gene with enormous potentiality in fecundity success. These insights hold valuable implications for identifying the target for genetic control, particularly in relation to species-specific traits that are pivotal in determining high levels of fecundity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In internal fertilisers, the precise timing of ovulation with the arrival of sperm at the site of fertilisation is essential for fertilisation success. In birds, mating is often not synchronised with ovulation, but instead females utilise specialised sperm storage tubules (SSTs) in the reproductive tract, which can ensure sperm are always available for fertilisation at the time of ovulation, whilst simultaneously providing a mechanism of post‐copulatory sexual selection. Despite the clear importance of SSTs for fertilisation success, we know little about the mechanisms involved in sperm acceptance, storage, and release. Furthermore, most research has been conducted on only a small number of species, based on which SSTs are usually assumed to look and function in the same way across all species. Here, we conduct a comparative exploration of SST morphology across 26 species of Galliformes. We show that SSTs, and the surrounding tissue, can vary significantly in morphology across species. We provide observational evidence that Galliformes exhibit at least 5 distinct categories of tubule types, including distinctive coiled and multi‐branched tubules, and describe 2 additional features of the surrounding tissue. We suggest functional explanations for variation in tubule morphology and propose next steps for future research. Our findings indicate that SSTs are likely to be far more variable than has previously been assumed, with potentially important consequences for our understanding of sperm storage in birds and post‐copulatory sexual selection in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated if gonad maturation in triploid brown trout, Salmo trutta, was entirely suppressed or only delayed, and if triploids could interbreed with diploid counterparts. Ten percent of the total number of 3‐year‐old triploid S. trutta, 15% of 4‐year‐old fish, and 17% of 5‐year‐old fish produced semen. Three and 4 years old triploid fish did not produce eggs, but 15% of the 5‐year‐old fish did so. The quantity and sperm motility of triploid semen did not differ from diploids, but the sperm concentration was significantly lower. When diploid eggs were fertilized with triploid semen (3n × 2n crosses), the percentage of eyed stage embryos, of hatched larvae, and of normal‐shaped larvae did not differ from the diploid controls. Circa 90% of 3n × 2n crosses had a ploidy level of 2.4n. In the remaining percentage of 3n × 2n crosses, the ploidy level was ≥2n and <2.4n. In sperm competition experiments where diploid eggs were fertilized with a mixture of diploid and triploid semen, 52% of the originating larvae had a ploidy level of 2n, 43% of 2.4n, and 5% of the fish were not exactly classified. From the start of feeding to an age of 248 days, the mortality rate of 3n × 2n interploid crosses and of 2n × 2n controls was similar. The growth of interploid crosses was significantly higher than that of controls. In triploid mature females, the egg mass per kilogram of body weight was significantly lower than in diploids. The mass of the non‐hardened eggs and the percentile weight increase during hardening did not differ from diploid eggs. When triploid eggs were fertilized with diploid semen (2n × 3n crosses), the development rate to normal hatched larvae was less than 10%. All originating larvae had a ploidy level of 3n. From the start of feeding to an age of 248 days, 2n × 3n crosses had a higher mortality rate (15%) than diploid controls (<5%). Growth of this type of interploid crosses was reduced in comparison to controls. Therefore, triploids introduced into natural waters for recreational fisheries or escaping from farms may interbreed with diploid counterparts. This not only alters the genotypes of local populations but also changes the ploidy levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parallel laser photogrammetry (PLP), which consists of attaching two or three parallel laser beams at a known inter‐beam distance to a camera, can be used to collect morphological measurements of organisms noninvasively. The lasers project onto the photo being taken, and because the inter‐beam distance is known, they act as a scale for image analysis programs like ImageJ. Traditionally, this method has been used to measure larger morphological traits (e.g., limb length, crown‐rump length) to serve as proxies for overall body size, whereas applications to smaller anatomical features remain limited. To that end, we used PLP to measure the testes of 18 free‐living mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica. We tested whether this method could reliably measure this relatively small and globular morphology, and whether it could detect differences among individuals. We tested reliability in three ways: within‐photo (coefficient of variation [CV] = 4.7%), between‐photo (CV = 5.5%), and interobserver (intraclass correlation = 0.92). We found an average volume of 36.2 cm3 and a range of 16.4–54.4 cm3, indicating variation in testes size between individuals. Furthermore, these sizes are consistent with a previous study that collected measurements by hand, suggesting that PLP is a useful method for making noninvasive measurements of testes. Research Highlights: Testes measurements are a critical data type that can elucidate key questions related to sperm competition and endocrine disruption, and deriving the measurements noninvasively is a great benefit to conservation effortsWe collected and measured photos of 18 individual adult mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) from La Selva, Costa Rica via parallel laser photogrammetryWe used three tests of repeatability to provide evidence that parallel laser photogrammetry can be used to measure the testes of a large‐bodied nonhuman primate noninvasively while being precise and accurate [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual selection theory predicts that females prefer males in good condition because mating with them provides more resources such as sperm, ejaculates and nuptial gifts. The female's condition also affects her mating decisions, and condition‐dependent mate choice may allow her to gain more resources from a mate in the context of fluctuating resource availability.We here investigated how female mating decisions and their fitness consequences varied in the assassin bug Amphibolus venator when the conditions of potential mates and/or the females differed (good or poor condition).Females in both good and poor conditions preferred males in good condition, and females that mated with males in good condition produced more eggs with higher hatch rates. This increase in fitness may be attributed to the males in good condition transferring more ejaculate to the females.In contrast, female mate preference, fecundity and hatch rates were not affected by their own condition. This suggests that females do not choose mates according to their own condition in A. venator. However, the females in good condition laid larger eggs than females in poor condition, implying that females in good condition may invest more per egg to improve their reproductive success.To understand the evolution of female mate choice, it is necessary to investigate the effects of the condition of both sexes on female mating decision and their fitness. In A. venator, male condition may affect mate choice more than female condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Sexual selection is not a single process. Instead, multiple processes of sexual selection can interact with respect to a given phenotype, in either reinforcing, independent, or conflicting directions. Here we consider how different processes of sexual selection interact in the seed bug Lygaeus simulans. This species is characterised by limited pre‐copulatory sexual selection, but the potential for rather strong post‐copulatory sexual selection. In particular, mating failure is common in this species, with around 40%–60% of copulations failing to result in the successful transfer of sperm. Mating failure is negatively correlated with female size, with smaller females being less likely to end up inseminated. We have recently argued that this pattern is best explained by cryptic male mate choice for large, more fecund females. Males therefore preferentially inseminate larger females. Here we explore how this potential cryptic male choice interacts with another component of post‐copulatory sexual selection: sperm competition. We first manipulated male and female size variation, generating large and small, male and female, size classes. Using a visible mutant marker to assign paternity, we then double‐mated females with males, in all combinations of male and female size. Our results showed that sperm competition outcomes were primarily driven by copulation duration, with longer copulations leading to greater paternity share for a male. We also confirmed that larger females are more likely to produce offspring than smaller females, as predicted by cryptic male choice for large females. This effect was again linked to copulation duration, with longer copulations less likely to lead to mating failure. While larger males tended to be more successful in sperm competition, especially if copulating second, female size had little effect on paternity, suggesting that cryptic male choice and sperm competition are acting relatively independently in this species.

Abstract One yet unresolved question in the study of mating system evolution is the occurrence of mating failure, when individuals go through their lives without successfully mating. This includes the failure to produce offspring even following copulation, for instance due to insemination or fertilisation failure. Copulations are costly in a variety of ways, but also a fundamental route to fitness in sexual species, and so we should expect that engaging in copulations that generate no offspring should be strongly selected against. Nonetheless, it has become apparent that mating failure is quite common in nature. Here we consider post‐copulatory sexual selection in Lygaeus simulans seed bugs to test the hypothesis that the high levels of mating failure found in this species (approximately 40%–60%) are caused by cryptic male choice (i.e. males choosing not to inseminate a female during copulation). In our first experiment, we found that mating failure depended on female size, but not male size, with smaller females experiencing mating failure more frequently. Mechanistically this is likely to be due to copulation duration, as shorter copulations were more likely to lead to mating failure. Likewise, copulations with smaller females were shorter. In our second and third experiments, rates of mating failure decreased when pairs were allowed to repeatedly interact with the same partner over longer durations (hours through to days), implying that mating failure is not primarily caused by infertility or chronic mechanical failure. Instead, our results strongly suggest cryptic male choice as the cause of mating failure in this species.

Our understanding of microbial variation in male reproductive tissues is poorly understood, both regarding how it varies spatially across different tissues and its ability to affect male sperm and semen quality. To redress this gap, we explored the relationship between male sperm viability and male gut and reproductive tract microbiomes in the Pacific field cricket, Teleogryllus oceanicus. We selected cohorts of males within our populations with the highest and lowest natural sperm viability and characterized the bacterial microbiota present in the gut, testes, seminal vesicle, accessory glands and the spermatophore (ejaculate) using 16S ribosomal RNA gene metabarcoding. We identified bacterial taxa corresponding to sperm viability, highlighting for the first time an association between the host’s microbial communities and male competitive fertilization success. We also found significant spatial variation in bacterial community structure of reproductive tissue types. Our data demonstrate the importance of considering the microbial diversity of both the host gut and reproductive tract when investigating male fertility in wildlife and potentially human clinical settings.

The article is a review of a book titled "Sex in Cetaceans: Morphology, Behavior, and the Evolution of Sexual Strategies." The book consists of 24 chapters written by different authors, providing an overview of the reproductive strategies and behaviors of cetaceans. It includes new research on the reproduction of specific species of toothed and baleen whales. The chapters cover topics such as genetic tools for parentage analysis, sexual anatomy, reproductive strategies, nonconceptive sexual behavior, infanticide, and drone perspectives on mating behavior. The book also discusses the impact of human activities on cetacean reproductive health. Overall, the book is recommended for those interested in learning more about reproduction and mating systems in aquatic-living mammals. [Extracted from the article]

Abstract In some squids, such as those in the family Loliginidae, upon copulation, females receive and store male-delivered sperm capsules, spermatangia, at two different body locations: the buccal membrane and the distal end of the oviduct. This insemination site dimorphism is associated with alternative reproductive strategies. However, in Loliolus sumatrensis, a species of Loliginidae, the females possess three insemination sites: buccal membrane (BM), basal left IV arm (ARM) and lateral head behind the left eye (EYE), therefore we studied such the unusual phenomena. We developed microsatellite markers and genotyped the paternity of each spermatangium on three sites. We found multiple paternity at every single site and simultaneous usage of all three sites by a few males. The seasonal dynamics of a population in the Seto Inland Sea revealed a set priority for the initial use of insemination sites as BM, followed by ARM and then EYE, whereas the maximum number of stored spermatangia was greater in EYE > ARM > BM. Female maturity status was correlated with the usage pattern of insemination sites but not with the number of stored spermatangia at any insemination site. These results suggest that a male squid inseminates at different locations according to female mating history and female maturity status.

When males compete, sexual selection favors reproductive traits that increase their mating or fertilization success (pre- and postcopulatory sexual selection). It is assumed that males face a trade-off between these 2 types of sexual traits because they both draw from the same pool of resources. Consequently, allocation into mate acquisition or ejaculation should create similar trade-offs with other key life history traits. Tests of these assumptions are exceedingly rare. Males only ejaculate after they mate, and the costs of ejaculation are therefore highly confounded with those of mating effort. Consequently, little is known about how each component of reproductive allocation affects a male's future performance. Here, we ran an experiment using a novel technique to distinguish the life history costs of mating effort and ejaculation for mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki). We compared manipulated males (mate without ejaculation), control males (mate and ejaculate), and naïve males (neither mate nor ejaculate) continuously housed with a female and 2 rival males. We assessed their growth, somatic maintenance, mating and fighting behavior, and sperm traits after 8 and 16 weeks. Past mating effort significantly lowered a male's future mating effort and growth, but not his sperm production, while past sperm release significantly lowered a male's future ejaculate quantity, but not his mating effort. Immune response was the only trait impacted by both past mating effort and past ejaculation. These findings challenge the assumption that male reproductive allocation draws from a common pool of resources to generate similar life history costs later in life. Instead, we provide clear evidence that allocation into traits under pre- and postcopulatory sexual selection have different trait-specific effects on subsequent male reproductive performance. Theory assumes that allocation to pre- and post-copulatory sexual traits draws from a common pool of resources, creating equivalent life-history trade-offs. However, this study uses a novel experiment with mosquitofish to reveal independent costs of mating effort and sperm allocation on subsequent male performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gamete traits can vary widely among species, populations and individuals, influencing fertilisation dynamics and overall reproductive fitness. Sexual selection can play an important role in determining the evolution of gamete traits with local environmental conditions determining the strength and direction of sexual selection. Here, we test for signatures of post‐mating selection on gamete traits in relation to population density, and possible interactive effects of population density and sperm concentration on sperm motility and fertilisation rates among natural populations of mussels. Our study shows that males from high‐density populations produce smaller sperm compared with males from low‐density populations, but we detected no effect of population density on egg size. Our results also reveal that females from low‐density populations tended to exhibit lower fertilisation rates across a range of sperm concentrations, although this became less important as sperm concentration increased. Variances in fertilisation success were higher for females than males and the effect of gamete compatibility between males and females increases as sperm concentrations increase. These results suggest that local population density can influence gamete traits and fertilisation dynamics but also highlight the importance of phenotypic plasticity in governing sperm–egg interactions in a highly dynamic selective environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female sperm storage organs in arthropods are used as taxonomic characters since it is assumed that they do not change after maturation. However, in the Golden Silk spider, Trichonephila clavipes, the shape and sclerotization of the spermathecae change with a mating event. Moreover, mating in T. clavipes consists of several hundred copulations, but the male transfers all sperm during the first insertion of each pedipalp. Given this puzzling mating behaviour, we hypothesize that multiple copulations serve purposes other than sperm transfer and uptake, such as further altering the morphology of the storage site and/or transferring substances other than sperm. We compared virgin female T. clavipes with females after two copulations, one for each spermatheca, and after ad‐libitum mating. Each treatment consisted of two sub‐treatments in which the state of the sperm storage organs was inspected after a short (1–3 days) or a long (11 days) time interval after the female's final moult. The size of the spermathecae increased twofold in all mating treatments compared to virgin females. The thickness of the spermathecal wall increased significantly with time in all treatments similarly. The spermathecal epithelium, which releases secretion into the lumen of the spermathecae, seems most active in virgin females during the time when mating would normally occur and turns less active after mating and with age. The spermathecae contain secretion produced by the female before mating; and after mating, sperm and another secretion transferred by the male. The numerous sperm‐less matings in the ad‐libitum treatment resulted in male secretion in the copulatory ducts of the female genitalia, likely impeding sperm transfer by subsequent males. Out study shows that female genitalia can change considerably after having reached maturity and suggests that sperm‐less matings evolved in the context of sperm competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bewildering courtship phenotypes of male birds of paradise (Paradisaedae) represent a classic example of sexual selection through mate choice. While the majority of sexual selection studies have focused on either mate choice or intrasexual competition, males across a variety of taxa adopt alternative mating tactics as additional means of obtaining fertilization when they are otherwise unable to. For example, across various polygynous birds, subordinate males engage in sneak copulations, which may offset the fitness costs of prolonged subordinate periods. Despite exhibiting strong mating skews and male delayed plumage maturation, reports of sneak copulation in the birds of paradise are exceedingly rare. After reviewing an extensive video collection of courtship interactions, we found examples of mountings by female‐plumaged birds in three birds of paradise species: the Western parotia Parotia sefilata, Carola's parotia Parotia carolae, and the magnificent bird of paradise Cicinnurus magnificus. While homosexual mountings by females have been documented previously in Lawes' parotia P. lawesii, adult males in the magnificent bird of paradise violently attacked intruding female‐plumaged birds attempting to mount receivers, suggesting that they may be immature males engaging in alternative mating tactics. Overall, the rare video footage described here is suggestive of two fascinating, yet unexplored phenomena in polygynous birds: alternative mating tactics and female homosexual behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social environment has myriad effects on individuals, altering reproduction, immune function, cognition, and aging. Phenotypic plasticity enables animals to respond to heterogeneous environments such as the social environment but requires that they assess those environments accurately. It has been suggested that combinations of sensory cues allow animals to respond rapidly and accurately to changeable environments, but it is unclear whether the same sensory inputs are required in all traits that respond to a particular environmental cue. Drosophila melanogaster males, in the presence of rival males, exhibit a consistent behavioral response by extending mating duration. However, exposure to a rival also results in a reduction in their lifespan, a phenomenon interpreted as a trade-off associated with sperm competition strategies. D. melanogaster perceive their rivals by using multiple sensory cues; interfering with at least two olfactory, auditory, or tactile cues eliminates the extension of mating duration. Here, we assessed whether these same cues were implicated in the lifespan reduction. Removal of combinations of auditory and olfactory cues removed the extended mating duration response to a rival, as previously found. However, we found that these manipulations did not alter the reduction in lifespan of males exposed to rivals or induce any changes in activity patterns, grooming, or male–male aggression. Therefore, our analysis suggests that lifespan reduction is not a cost associated with the behavioral responses to sperm competition. Moreover, this highlights the trait-specific nature of the mechanisms underlying plasticity in response to the same environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ever since Darwin's pioneering work, the definition of sexual selection has been subject to recurrent controversies. The main focus of a more recent debate centers on whether or not sexual selection encompasses intra-sexual competition for resources other than gametes. Specifically, it has been proposed to define sexual selection as competition for access to gametes and to consider competition for any other resources provided by mates as forms of natural selection. In this review, I elaborate on several drawbacks of this gamete-centered approach arguing that it (1) implies an artificial split of pre-copulatory competition for mates into two indistinguishable processes, (2) hinders the identification and quantification of sexual selection and, therefore, its distinction from other forms of natural selection, (3) gives rise to an overly male-biased perception on sexual selection, and (4) does not conform to Darwin's original conception. In an attempt to provide a definition, which is explicit regarding the ultimate target of intra-sexual competition, I propose to define sexual selection as competition for access to reproductive resources provided by potential mating partners. I specify the main characteristics of this alternative definition in the context of previous ones and discuss potential limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sperm competition and male mating rate are two non-mutually exclusive key evolutionary pressures selecting for larger testes within and across animal taxa. A few studies have tried to test the role of mating rate in the absence of sperm competition. Under the mating rate hypothesis, particular phenotypes of a given population that are expected to gain more mates (e.g. more ornamented males) are expected to make higher investments in testes size (a proxy for sperm production). We test this prediction in Polistes simillimus , a neotropical paper wasp in which females are single mated (no sperm competition) and males can mate with multiple partners. Testes size was predicted by body size (positive association), sexual ornamentation (negative association), and their interaction (among small males, testes size was positively related to ornamentation, but the opposite pattern was observed among large males). We propose that small-bodied well-ornamented males may face the highest risk of sperm depletion. Small-bodied males make relatively higher investment in testes size when highly ornamented. This strategy might be less profitable to large males, as they have overall larger testes. Our results provide strong evidence for the mating rate hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cost of reproduction is well studied in females but only recently have the costs of mating been investigated in males. Research suggests that males allocate resources between subsequent mating events, resulting in differential success across mating bouts. Selection should favor allocation strategies that match the likelihood of successive matings. The complexity of the system, however, suggests that one fixed strategy is unlikely to be universally favored and thus I predict that genetic variation for different allocation strategies will be segregating in natural populations. To test this, I measured several components of reproductive performance in eight inbred genotypes of Drosophila melanogaster across three sequential mating events. As predicted, there was genetic variation for how previous experience affected a male's reproductive performance for both the proportion of matings that produced offspring and the proportion of offspring sired (P1). Some genotypes had the highest success in their first matings and declined in successive matings while other genotypes did best in later matings. Mating experience had consistent effects across genotypes on fertility and induced refractoriness to remating. On average, virgin matings produced the highest fertility and third matings most effectively induced refractoriness. Genotype also had a significant effect on fertility. These results have important implications for understanding how selection may be acting on males when there is variation in the likelihood of multiple mating events and could affect the evolution of male allocation strategies in the face of perceived competitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual dimorphism can evolve in response to sex-specific selection pressures that vary across habitats. We studied sexual differences in subterranean amphipods Niphargus living in shallow subterranean habitats (close to the surface), cave streams (intermediate), and cave lakes (deepest and most isolated). These three habitats differ because at greater depths there is lower food availability, reduced predation, and weaker seasonality. Additionally, species near the surface have a near-even adult sex ratio (ASR), whereas species from cave lakes have a female-biased ASR. We hypothesized (a) a decrease in sexual dimorphism from shallow subterranean habitats to cave lake species because of weaker sexual selection derived from changes in the ASR and (b) an increase in female body size in cave lakes because of stronger fecundity selection on account of oligotrophy, reduced predation, and weaker seasonality. We measured body size and two sexually dimorphic abdominal appendages for all 31 species and several behaviours related to male competition (activity, risk-taking, exploration) for 12 species. Species with an equal ASR that live close to the surface exhibited sexual dimorphism in all three morphological traits, but not in behaviour. The body size of females increased from the surface to cave lakes, but no such trend was observed in males. In cave lake species, males and females differed neither morphologically nor behaviourally. Our results are consistent with the possibility that sexual and fecundity selection covary across the three habitats, which indirectly and directly, respectively, shape the degree of sexual dimorphism in Niphargus species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding what processes shape the formation of species' geographic range limits is one central objective linking ecology and evolutionary biology. One potentially key process is sexual selection; yet, theory examining how sexual selection could shape eco-evolutionary dynamics in marginal populations is still lacking. In species with separate sexes, range limits could be shaped by limitations in encountering mates at low densities. Sexual selection could therefore modulate mate limitation and resulting extinction–colonization dynamics at range margins, through evolution of mate encounter ability and/or mate competition traits, and their demographic consequences. We use a spatially explicit eco-genetic model to reveal how different forms of sexual selection can variably affect emerging range limits. Larger ranges emerged when sexual selection acted exclusively on traits increasing mate encounter probability, thus reducing female's mate limitation toward the range margins. In contrast, sexual selection via mate competition narrowed range limits due to increased trait-dependent mortality in males and elevated mate limitation for females. When mate encounter coevolved with mate competition, their combined effects on range limits depended on the mating system (polygyny vs. monogamy). Our results demonstrate that evolution of species' ranges may be importantly shaped by feedbacks between sexual selection and spatial population demography and dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluating the efficacy of the use of Trojan male brook trout with two Y chromosomes (MYY) requires a better understanding of reproductive performance. We measured the reproductive performance of hatchery age-0 and age-1 MYY brook trout compared to hatchery XY males using laboratory crosses. Offspring of XY males had higher survival than offspring of age-1 MYY 1-day post-fertilization, but not offspring of age-0 MYY. We found no detectable differences in survival from eyed-egg to the juvenile-fry stage. However, size-at-age differed, where offspring of age-0 MYY were 3.6% smaller in length and 25.2% smaller in weight than those of XY males. For crosses fertilized by both MYY and XY males, we found that a significantly higher proportion of offspring within families were sired by MYY versus XY males. These results show, under controlled conditions, evidence for possible fitness advantage for MYY under sperm competition, but a possible fitness disadvantage associated with early growth of their offspring. Overall, our results hold promise for the use of MYY brook trout to serve as an effective eradication tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite rapid evolution across eutherian mammals, the X-linked MIR-506 family miRNAs are located in a region flanked by two highly conserved protein-coding genes (SLITRK2 and FMR1) on the X chromosome. Intriguingly, these miRNAs are predominantly expressed in the testis, suggesting a potential role in spermatogenesis and male fertility. Here, we report that the X-linked MIR-506 family miRNAs were derived from the MER91C DNA transposons. Selective inactivation of individual miRNAs or clusters caused no discernible defects, but simultaneous ablation of five clusters containing 19 members of the MIR-506 family led to reduced male fertility in mice. Despite normal sperm counts, motility, and morphology, the KO sperm were less competitive than wild-type sperm when subjected to a polyandrous mating scheme. Transcriptomic and bioinformatic analyses revealed that these X-linked MIR-506 family miRNAs, in addition to targeting a set of conserved genes, have more targets that are critical for spermatogenesis and embryonic development during evolution. Our data suggest that the MIR-506 family miRNAs function to enhance sperm competitiveness and reproductive fitness of the male by finetuning gene expression during spermatogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In animals, reproductive performance typically improves over time early in life. Several ultimate and proximate mechanisms may contribute to such an age-related improvement and these mechanisms can act in a relative or in an absolute sense. Low performance of young individuals may be the consequence of a comparison or competition with older individuals (relative), or it may be due to specific traits of young individuals and be unrelated to the presence of older competitors (absolute). Here, we perform a test to disentangle whether the effect of age class (yearling or older) on male extra-pair siring success is relative or absolute. Male age is the most consistent predictor of male extra-pair siring success across bird species, yet the mechanisms underlying this pattern are not well understood. Low extra-pair siring success of yearling males may be a consequence of the presence of older ("adult") males (hypothesis 1), because adult males are more successful in intra- and intersexual interactions or because females prefer to copulate with adult males when available (relative preference). Alternatively, low extra-pair siring success of yearlings may be independent of the presence of adult males (hypothesis 2), for example, if yearling males on average invest less in extra-pair behavior or if females avoid them as extra-pair mates, independent of the availability of older males (absolute preference). To distinguish between these 2 hypotheses, we experimentally manipulated the age structure of a nest-box-breeding population of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) by removing almost all adult males, and compared patterns of extra-pair paternity in the experimental year with those from the preceding 15 "control" years. Removal of adult males resulted in a substantial increase in the extra-pair siring success of yearling males compared to the "control" years, but did not affect the population-level frequency of extra-pair paternity or its spatial patterns. Our results provide clear evidence that extra-pair siring success of yearlings can increase and that it depends on the presence of older males in the population, indicating a relative effect of age on reproductive performance. These results suggest that older males outcompete yearling males in direct or indirect interactions, in sperm competition or as a result of differences in attractiveness to females. Male reproductive performance typically improves over time early in life, but is this due to competition with older males or inherent to younger males? This study of blue tits suggests that older males outcompete yearling males via sperm competition or differences in attractiveness to females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The selection of superior sires is paramount for enhancing the efficiency of animal production in the livestock industry. However, semen quality assessment still relies on conventional semen analysis techniques in both animals and humans. Despite extensive efforts to develop various biomarkers for more accurate and precise predictions of male fertility potential, more effective physiological indicators and advance potential biomarkers are needed. Herein, we aimed to develop new potential biomarkers related to sperm motion kinematics for male fertility prediction. We first evaluated sperm motion kinematic parameters and expression levels of sperm motility-related proteins of 30 Duroc boars. We then explored the correlation between litter size, sperm motion kinematics parameters, and sperm motility-related proteins. Progressive sperm motility (%), rapid sperm motility (%), slow sperm motility (%), straight-line velocity (μm/s), linearity (%), beat cross frequency (Hz), mean angular displacement (degree), wobble (%) were correlated with litter size. Furthermore, the expression of axonemal dynein light intermediate polypeptide 1 (DNALI1) and radial spoke head protein 9 homolog (RSPH9) correlated with litter size. The overall accuracy exceeded 60% for predicting litter size using these sperm motion parameters and proteins. Notably, our study observed an increase in litter size after predicting litter size using these parameters and proteins. Thus, sperm motion kinematic parameters and protein expression, particularly of DNALI1 and RSPH9, could serve as new biomarkers for male fertility. These results may contribute to improved understanding of the mechanisms underlying sperm motility. • Several sperm motion kinematics parameters were correlated with litter size. • Expression levels of DNALI1 and RSPH9 were also correlated with litter size. • Increases in litter size were observed after predicting litter size using these. • These sperm motion kinematic parameters and proteins may be used for the prediction of male fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many genes are differentially expressed between males and females and patterns of sex-biased gene expression (SBGE) vary among species. Some of this variation is thought to have evolved in response to differences in mate competition among species that cause varying patterns of sex-specific selection. We used experimental evolution to test this by quantifying SBGE and sex-specific splicing in 15 Drosophila melanogaster populations that evolved for 104 generations in mating treatments that removed mate competition via enforced monogamy, or allowed mate competition in either small, simple, or larger, structurally more complex mating environments. Consistent with sex-specific selection affecting SBGE, initially sex-biased genes diverged in expression more among treatments than unbiased genes, and there was greater expression divergence for male- than female-biased genes. It has been suggested the transcriptome should be "feminized" under monogamy because of the removal of sexual selection on males; we did not observe this, likely because selection differs in additional ways between monogamy vs. polygamy. Significant divergence in average expression dimorphism between treatments was observed and, in some treatment comparisons, the direction of the divergence differed across different sex-bias categories. There was not a generalized reduction in expression dimorphism under enforced monogamy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a complicated social context, outcome evaluation involves not only oneself but also others in relation to the self (i.e., social comparison). Previous event‐related potential (ERP) studies have investigated the processing of social comparison‐related outcomes when one's interests are independent of the interests of others (i.e., noncompetition circumstances). However, it is unclear how social comparison‐related outcomes are processed in the brain when there are conflicts of interest between oneself and others (i.e., competition circumstances). To address this issue, participants in the current study were asked to perform an attentional task with several peers and were subsequently presented with self‐related outcomes (i.e., the performance difference between the current trial and several preceding trials) and social comparison‐related outcomes (i.e., the performance difference between oneself and their peer). Importantly, rewards and punishments were based on social comparison‐related outcomes in the competition condition and on self‐related outcomes in the noncompetition condition. ERP results revealed that in the competition condition, positive outcomes involving social comparison elicited a greater P300 response than negative outcomes, whereas this effect was not observed in the noncompetition condition. Additionally, there was generally a larger late positive potential (LPP) response to negative outcomes involving social comparison than to positive outcomes only when one obtained a self‐related positive outcome in the competition condition. These findings suggest that competition might strengthen outcome processing involving social comparison at late time ranges relying on self‐related outcomes to some extent. The present study for the first time investigated whether social competition influences the processing of social comparison‐related outcomes. We observed that competition strengthens the effects of social comparison‐related outcomes on P300 responses, in general, and on late positive potential responses when one obtained self‐related positive outcomes. The findings are consistent with the perspective of evolutionary theories, in which social competition contributes to increased mental adaptation to a new situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mate-guarding behaviour is thought to beneficially increase paternal share by lowering sperm competition. It is likely to be a plastic response that changes with the density of rivals in the surroundings. A recent study showed that the Parthenium beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), exhibits mate-guarding behaviour through prolonged mating duration. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the flexibility of this behaviour when rivals were present. A pair of Z. bicolorata were placed in the physical presence and chemical cues of rivals of both sexes at different densities, and their precopulatory behaviours (time to commencement of mating, latent period, mate-guarding duration and reproductive output) were noted. We hypothesized that population densities of rivals of both sexes would influence the mate-guarding behaviour and reproductive outputs. Our results revealed that population density has significant effects on precopulatory parameters and reproductive outputs. Mate-guarding duration decreased in the physical presence of rivals, while it increased in the presence of chemical cues. In the physical presence of rivals, mate guarding probably decreased due to the repeated harassment of the focal pair, especially the male partner, by the rivals in the experimental arena. However, reproductive outputs (fecundity and percentage egg viability) were increased in both the physical presence and chemical cues of males and females. Hence our results clearly support the previous observation of mate-guarding behaviour through prolonged mating duration in the Parthenium beetle, and show its plasticity. • Plasticity of mate-guarding behaviour in response to adult density was studied. • Results revealed a significant effect of density on mate-guarding behaviour. • Physical presence of rivals significantly decreases mate guarding in focal pair. • Chemical cues of rival males or females increase mate guarding in focal pair. • Reproductive output increases with both physical and chemical presence of rivals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mating plugs in animals are ubiquitous and are commonly interpreted to be products of mating strategies. In spiders, however, mating plugs may also take on functions beyond female remating prevention. Due to the vagaries of female genital (spermathecal) anatomy, most spiders face the problem of having to secure additional, non-anatomical, protection for transferred sperm. Here, we test the hypothesis that mating plugs, rather than (or in addition to) being adaptations for mating strategies, may serve as sperm protection mechanism. Based on a comparative study on 411 epigyna sampled from 36 families, 187 genera, 330 species of entelegyne spiders, our results confirm the necessity of a sperm protection mechanism. We divided the entelegyne spermathecae into four types: SEG, SED, SCG and SCD. We also studied detailed morphology of epigynal tracts in the spider Diphya wulingensis having the SEG type spermathecae, using 3D-reconstruction based on semi thin histological series section. In this species, we hypothesize that two distinct types of mating plug, the sperm plug and the secretion plug, serve different functions. Morphological details support this: sperm plugs are formed on a modified spermathecal wall by the spilled sperm, and function as a temporary protection mechanism to prevent sperm from leaking and desiccating, while secretion plugs function in postcopulation both as a permanent protection mechanism, and to prevent additional mating. Furthermore, with the modified spermathecal wall of S2 stalk, the problem of shunt of sperm input and output, and the possibility of female multiple mating have been resolved. Variation in spermathecal morphology also suggests that the problem of sperm protection might be resolved in different ways in spiders. Considering mating plugs of varying shapes and origins in the vast morphospace of spiders, we conclude that mating plugs might serve different purposes that relate both to mating strategies, as well as to sperm protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]