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Relevance of the research topic: currently, space is considered as a new economic resource, the use of which can generate profit for companies that have access to it. The participation of private capital in space exploration contributes to the search for new business niches and the formation of new economic sectors, one of which is space tourism. The purpose of the article is to study the current state and development trends of a new branch of the world economy — space tourism. To conduct the study, general scientific methods were used: analysis, synthesis, deduction, comparative analysis, generalization, as well as special scientific methods: structural analysis, statistical method, grouping method, graphical method and SWOT analysis method. A review of scientific publications on the problems of space tourism development allowed the author to propose his own definition of this phenomenon and identify its main features at the present stage of development. The author identified and analysed the main types of space tourism (orbital, suborbital, lunar and stratospheric), identified the main participants in the global space tourism market, conducted a comparative analysis of the technologies used to provide services for sending tourists into space, and conducted a SWOT analysis of the development of the global space tourism industry, he also analyzed the state of space tourism in Russia. The results and conclusions of the article are of interest to researchers studying the development of economic sectors related to space activities, as well as to government agencies whose decisions affect the development of the space industry in Russia.

The space tourism industry is growing due to advances in rocket technology. Privatised space travel exposes non-professional astronauts with health profiles comprising underlying conditions to microgravity. Prior research has typically focused on the effects of microgravity on human physiology in healthy astronauts, and little is known how the effects of microgravity may play out in the pathophysiology of underlying medical conditions, such as heart failure. This study used an established, controlled lumped mathematical model of the cardiopulmonary system to simulate the effects of entry into microgravity in the setting of heart failure with both, reduced and preserved ejection fraction. We find that exposure to microgravity eventuates an increased cardiac output, and in patients with heart failure there is an unwanted increase in left atrial pressure, indicating an elevated risk for development of pulmonary oedema. This model gives insight into the risks of space flight for people with heart failure, and the impact this may have on mission success in space tourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article argues that Valene Smith's contributions were fundamental for mapping out the terrain for what was envisioned as an 'anthropology of tourism.' As the first major collection of anthropological research on the topic of tourism, Smith's 1977 volume Hosts and Guests offered a wide geographical range of ethnographically grounded studies of tourism, charted typologies, and chronicled tourism impacts, much as one would map a 'field of ethnological study'. This article addresses the role of Smiths's volume in legitimizing what had previously been an off-the-radar realm of anthropological study. It also traces one of the many legacies of Smith's landmark volume: the blossoming of a realm of tourism studies oriented toward examining the politics, performance, and negotiation of identities (including ethnicity, gender, nationalism, and heritage) in and beyond encounters between 'hosts' and 'guests.' Finally, the article addresses Smith's 2001 revised edition of the volume, Hosts and Guests Revisited, arguing that her essays in that volume presciently identified 21st-century realms of interest for tourism scholars, including space tourism, voluntourism, terrorism and tourism, and cyberspace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The international space treaties of the twentieth century were developed on the strong foundations of common benefits and rights of humankind in the exploration and use of outer space. Twenty-first century space developments, especially commercial, are posing serious challenge in the practical implementation of treaty obligations. The Gateway is one such project that has taken shape in the recent past, which raises multiple questions under the provisions of the United Nations space treaties. This paper attempts to unearth some of the most significant issues that arise out of the interplay between the project Gateway and obligations of States under the international space treaties. The focal point of argument here is to protect the sanctity of the foundational principles of international space law to ensure orderly developments in the space sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A long-duration microgravity environment has numerous detrimental effects on the human physiology. The most obvious solution for this problem related to long duration space exploration missions is to remedy the lack of gravity. This could be done using short arm human centrifuges but they do not seem to be sufficiently effective, perhaps because of the short duration exposure of this countermeasure and/or the huge body gravity gradient. New views have to be investigated, such as to see if a (very) long-arm rotating system generating a continuous 1 g or partial gravity field might resolve this issue. Besides the expected benefits regarding astronauts' microgravity pathologies, additionally the spacecraft itself, its on-board (sub-)systems and procedures might benefit from a rotating configuration. In this paper we address very briefly the medical issues, but the work is mainly focused on the advantages regarding engineering, operations, life support, safety and budget of having a constantly rotating spacecraft first in Low Earth Orbit and later for long duration missions to Mars. A large rotating spacecraft is feasible and affordable to build, operate and maintain. It has advantages for governmental and commercial use but also in light of the expected increase in space tourism. It will also save crew time and billions of dollars now being spent to counteract the effects of microgravity. A continuous rotating spacecraft providing Artificial Gravity will: • Improve crew health and wellbeing. • Improve mission safety and success. • Reduce costs significantly. • Simplify numerous operations in flight. • Provides the use of 1 g verified systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-lasting space missions as well as space tourism are technically possible today and economically in reach. It is a matter of time until the use of biopharmaceutical drug products in space will be common practice. Until drug product manufacturing in space is possible, the products need to be brought to space with rockets, which means that stable and light-weight products are preferred. Lyophilization is a promising approach to reduce weight during transportation and achieve storage stability at room temperature without cold-chain demands. This implies that recycled water in space needs to be used for reconstitution which poses a microbiological challenge and should be considered during formulation development. Furthermore, administration of the injectable drugs in space has an impact on the chosen packaging material which needs to be considered during drug product development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since reusable launch vehicles have revolutionized access to space, space tourism has received enormous policy and research attention. However, such growth is occurring within a wider context of concerns over climate change, emissions, and space debris. Although the space industries have enormous environmental impacts, few studies have been undertaken on the sustainability of space tourism. Therefore, we aim to create and assess an extended value-beliefs-norms theory with environmental, social, and governance (ESG) factors, trust in artificial intelligence (AI), and the benefits of AI, in comparing three types of space tourism (Earth, suborbital, and orbital). To achieve the goals, multi-method analyses of 1,000 respondents were applied, including partial least squares-structural equation modeling, multi-group analysis, fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis, and deep learning. Results revealed that the extended value-belief-norm model well explains space tourist behavior, ESG also has significant roles on the research model, and the three types have unique characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An optimisation methodology is proposed for shielding against Orbital Debris. • Hypervelocity impact models are developed to capture damage/fracture mechanisms. • The proposed models are validated against hypervelocity impact experiments. • The optimised configuration maximises protection and minimises areal density. Advancements in space exploration over the last few decades have led to a sharp increase in Micro-Meteoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD), with the associated increased risk of hypervelocity impact on satellites and space structures. The Whipple shield can mitigate the effects of such impacts and current research is exploring further developments towards effective lightweight passive shielding technology to counter the damaging effects of MMOD. With the increase in MMOD and the prospect of increased space travel in the coming years and decades, it is vital that more research is conducted and improvements are made in the development and design of efficient, lightweight shielding technology to protect both unmanned and manned spacecraft against hypervelocity impacts (HVI). The optimisation of shield design for HVI is a high dimensionality problem, suited to advanced computational approaches. Key variables in HVI shield design that should inform the focus on optimisation include: impact velocity, rear wall thickness, projectile diameter and bumper thickness. A hybrid shield configuration and numerical model are proposed and validated, with alternating layers of aluminium (AL2024) and carbon fibre composites (CFRP, T300 woven-fabric) to form a 5 mm thick target plate consisting of 5 plies. The adaptive coupled FEM-SPH method is used to model the target plates. The proposed hypervelocity shield design optimisation methodology is based on Direct Simulation-based Genetic Algorithm (DSGA) optimisation and is implemented to optimise a multi-variable shield design space. Objective weightings are used to analyse and discuss results, referring to the ratio of the kinetic energy to the shield areal density objectives. A clear transition in the impact behaviour of the optimised MMOD shields is observed in the transition region from high-velocity to hypervelocity impact, where significant levels of kinetic energy dissipation are observed below the transition region, and lower energy dissipation at hypervelocity. The shield design optimisation results show that with a weighted kinetic energy to mass objective of 90:10, the kinetic energy of the back shield plate decreases significantly (62.7%) and the areal density can be reduced by more than 18%. Alternative configurations displayed sub-optimal results based on a trade-off between objective functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until recently space travel was considered a privilege of governmental astronauts, with the exception perhaps of a few billionaire space tourists, who had been accommodated on the International Space Station on some rare occasions. Nonetheless, with major space pioneers announcing plans for space tourism activities and after the successful launch in orbit of space tourism vehicles from the Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin companies, academic interest about human spaceflight for purposes of leisure and recreation has ignited. Taking into account that space tourism is in fact an unregulated activity, this paper will firstly examine whether space tourism activities fall under the scope of space law or under the scope of international air law, depending on the planned trajectory of the space tourism vehicle. Furthermore, the authors will attempt to draw conclusions concerning the legal implications of space tourism activities through a comparative analysis with the 1974 Athens Convention on the Carriage of Passengers and the Carriage of their Luggage by Sea. This international convention provides a great example on the regulation of touristic ventures, as it refers to commercial touristic activities realized within a res communis omnium , i. e., the high seas, similarly with touristic activities in space. Moreover, said Convention provides for a specialized regime for touristic activities and is of particular interest, since it has achieved stability and a desirable balance of interests between private tourism operators and passengers. In this connection, the authors will evaluate the provisions of the 1974 Athens Convention in comparison with the space treaties applicable to space tourism activities. Furthermore, suggestions will be made as to whether it would be appropriate and feasible to introduce in the space law realm certain rules of law similar to those of the 1974 Athens Convention, in order to facilitate growth in the space tourism sector, without compromising the safety of human spaceflight for space passengers. • The 1974 Athens Convention in comparison with the space treaties applicable to space tourism activities. • Legal analogy between space law and maritime law. • Legal regime governing space tourism activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing accessibility of commercial and private space travel necessitates a profound understanding of its impact on human health. The NASA Open Science Data Repository (OSDR) provides transparent and FAIR access to biological studies, notably the SpaceX Inspiration4 (I4) mission, which amassed extensive data from civilian astronauts. This dataset encompasses omics and clinical assays, facilitating comprehensive research on space-induced biological responses. These data allow for multi-modal, longitudinal assessments, bridging the gap between human and model organism studies. Crucially, community-driven data standards established by NASA's OSDR Analysis Working Groups empower artificial intelligence and machine learning to glean invaluable insights, guiding future mission planning and health risk mitigation. This article presents a concise guide to access and analyze I4 data in OSDR, including programmatic access through GLOpenAPI. This pioneering effort establishes a precedent for post-mission health monitoring programs within space agencies, propelling research in the burgeoning field of commercial space travel's impact on human physiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manufacturing is foundational to the building and functioning of our world and includes creating things from small home objects and tools to large-scale installations. Recently, manufacturing in space has gained a lot of attention for the critical role that on-demand in-space manufacturing can play in reducing mission costs, increasing mission success, and unlocking new frontiers for humanity. Moving manufacturing out of this world into an environment lacking substantial gravitational forces presents unique technical challenges and new opportunities. This review explores the field of additive manufacturing and bio-based manufacturing in space. Using the unique environment space provides, such as microgravity, new materials and products can be created using additive manufacturing methods. We explore and provide an overview of the current state of the art in biomanufacturing, extrusion-based manufacturing, and droplet-driven manufacturing. We also provide insights into how the fields' future could be shaped through space. The advancement of in-space manufacturing methods has the potential to unlock new possibilities for unique materials and manufacturing methods. It has the potential to make space travel more readily available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rise of commercial space tourism, the barrier to entry into space lowers. Therefore, passengers with more complex medical conditions are predicted to enter space. This report aims to initiate the development of procedures assessing the safety of space travel for individuals with orthopedic implants. In preparation for the 2023 sounding rocket launch by McGill Rocket Team, the Payload subteam developed a bone model, a human model, a finite element analysis model, and a testing model to determine the safety of orthopedic implants under the harsh conditions of spaceflight. Measuring the dynamic forces of the MRT's Porthos rocket in flight yielded vibrations in the 300-2750 Hz range, which is valuable for creating better models of the loading conditions on orthopedic implants in silico. Three point bending testing revealed high precision but low accuracy in measuring the mechanical strength of the models. Ultimately, the study recommends adjusting the testing models to prevent oversimplification. Future work should analyze bone screw interfaces on a microscopic level to detect small changes in implant stresses. By implementing these changes, procedures can accurately describe the safety of spaceflight for those with orthopedic implants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With an expected global revenue exceeding 1 trillion USD by 2040, the space industry is one of the world's fastest-growing sectors. Given the booming investment in the space industry and the anticipated space tourism era, it is crucial to assess the impact of already operative launch assets as well as to adopt design-to-sustainability strategies for the under-development and future launchers. This paper discloses an integrated methodology to estimate nitrogen oxides emissions of a hydrogen-fuelled air-breathing concept. The proposed strategy combines multi-fidelity propulsive system modelling with 0D chemical-kinetic air/hydrogen combustion numerical simulations to define a high-fidelity emissive database representative of various on-ground and in-flight operative conditions. The propulsive and emissive databases are then used to suggest an analytical formulation able to predict nitrogen oxides emission indices in any in-flight conditions, perfectly fitting the conceptual design needs. Throughout the paper, the Skylon spaceplane and its Synergetic Air Breathing Rocket Engine are used as case study. The methodology disclosed allows proving the high competitiveness of this air-breathing space launchers with respect to famous past and current competitors, as the Space Shuttle and the Falcon 9. [Display omitted] • Integrated design methodologies can support NOx estimations in conceptual design. • 0D chemical-kinetic simulations with Z24 scheme provides reliable E I N O x estimation. • Air-breathing launchers prove to be environmentally friendlier than conventional ones. • Upgraded P 3 T 3 method can support E I N O x estimation for hydrogen-fuelled launchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To expand the human exploration footprint and reach Mars in the 2030s, we must explore how humans survive and thrive in demanding, unusual, and novel ecologies (i.e., extreme environments). In the extreme conditions encountered during human spaceflight, there is a need to understand human functioning and response in a more rigorous theoretically informed way. Current models of human performance in space‐relevant environments and human space science are often operationally focused, with emphasis on acute physiological or behavioral outcomes. However, integrating current perspectives in human biology allows for a more holistic and complete understanding of how humans function over a range of time in an extreme environment. Here, we show how the use of evolution‐informed frameworks (i.e., models of life history theory to organize the adaptive pressures of spaceflight and biocultural perspectives) coupled with the use of mixed‐methodological toolkits can shape models that better encompass the scope of biobehavioral human adjustment to long‐duration space travel and extra‐terrestrial habitation. Further, we discuss how we can marry human biology perspectives with the rigorous programmatic structures developed for spaceflight to model other unknown and nascent extremes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study derives space travel pricing by Walrasian Equilibrium, which is logical reasoning from the general relativity theory (GRT), the accounting equation, and economic supply and demand functions. The Cobb–Douglas functions embed the endogenous space factor as new capital to form the space travel firm's production function, which is also transformed into the consumer's utility function. Thus, the market equilibrium occurs at the equivalence of supply and demand functions, like the GRT, which presents the equivalence between the spatial geometric tensor and the energy–momentum tensor, explaining the principles of gravity and the motion of space matter in the spacetime framework. The mathematical axiomatic set theory of the accounting equation explains the equity premium effect that causes a short-term accounting equation inequality, then reaches the equivalence by suppliers' incremental equity through the closing accounts process of the accounting cycle. On the demand side, the consumption of space travel can be assumed as a value at risk (VaR) investment to attain the specific spacetime curvature in an expected orbit. Spacetime market equilibrium is then achieved to construct the space travel pricing model. The methodology of econophysics and the analogy method was applied to infer space travel pricing with the model of profit maximization, single-mindedness, and envy-free pricing in unit-demand markets. A case study with simulation was conducted for empirical verification of the mathematical models and algorithm. The results showed that space travel pricing remains associated with the principle of market equilibrium, but needs to be extended to the spacetime tensor of GRT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With increasing possibilities of multi-year missions in deep space, colonizing other planets, and space tourism, it is important to investigate the effects of space travel on human reproduction. This study aimed to systematically review and summarize the results of available literature on space travel, microgravity, and space radiation, or Earth-based spaceflight analogues impact on female and male reproductive functions in humans. This systematic review was performed according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines and Space Biomedicine Systematic Review methods. The search was performed using three databases: PubMed, Web of Science, and Medline Complete. During the database search, 364 studies were identified. After the study selection process, 16 studies were included in the review. Five studies included female participants, and the findings show an increased risk of thromboembolism in combined oral contraceptive users, decreased decidualization, functional insufficiency of corpus luteum, and decreased progesterone and LH levels related to space travel or its simulation. Male participants were included in 13 studies. In males, reproductive health considerations focused on the decrease in testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin levels, the ratio of male offspring, sperm motility, sperm vitality, and the increase in sperm DNA fragmentation related to space travel or its simulation. Results of this systematic review highlight the need to focus more on the astronaut's reproductive health in future research, as only 16 studies were found during the literature search, and many more research questions related to reproductive health in astronauts still need to be answered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent spaceflights involving nonprofessional people have opened the doors to the suborbital space tourism business. However, they have also drawn public attention to the safety and hazards associated with space travel. Unfortunately, space travel involves a myriad of health risks for people, ranging from DNA damage caused by radiation exposure to the hemodynamic changes that occur when living in microgravity. In fact, the primary pathogenetic role is attributed to cosmic radiation, since deep space lacks the protective benefit of Earth's magnetic shielding. The second risk factor for space-induced pathologies is microgravity, which may affect organ function and cause a different distribution of fluid inside the human body. Both cosmic radiation and microgravity may lead to the alteration of cellular homeostasis and molecular changes in cell function. These, in turn, might have a direct impact on heart function and structure. The aim of this review is to draw attention to the fact that spaceflights constitute a novel frontier in biomedical research. We summarize the most important clinical and experimental evidence regarding the cardiovascular effects of cosmic radiation and microgravity. Finally, we highlight that unraveling the mechanisms underlying how space radiation and microgravity affect the cardiovascular system is crucial for identifying potential countermeasures and developing effective therapeutic strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the history of space flight, the dominant players in the industry, and the emerging regulatory issues surrounding commercial space tourism. A review of the historical and current agencies and regulatory ordinances and organizations was conducted. There are notable gaps in the ways in which commercial space flight tourism is regulated, largely due to the international zone designation attributed to outer space (as it falls outside of the jurisdiction of any single State) and the limited foresight afforded the inherent risks in this type of travel. The findings of this study suggest the FAA be mandated to enact reasonable safety regulations. Additional implications include a call for both national and international regulation, and professional inspection and certification organizations to help guide the safety protocols of commercial space tourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth of space tourism over recent decades has led to calls to formalise its ethical positioning and sustainability credentials in the eyes of society. With tourism ethics frameworks typically developing according to human-centred viewpoints, how might we develop ethical reference points for future space tourism when technological innovation progresses to the extent where we are exploring the unknown? To explore the unknown, we have conducted a colonial reflection on the behaviour and attitudes of Captain James Cook and the crew of HMS Endeavour when they visited Australia in 1770. From a methodological perspective, we have drawn on extracts from the voyage journals, examining the information that they provide through the lens of existentialism. Through this examination we explore some of the challenges that future space tourists might face being authentic to themselves when exploring the unknown. This includes the challenges in avoiding 'bad faith' in our dealings with other life-forms and the abdication of our own personal responsibility to act in a manner which is ethical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, new space actors have entered the field of space activities with great enthusiasm. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is one of these newcomers investing in this domain with a broad prospect based on a specific strategy and policy. Accordingly, in 2019, the UAE developed a legal framework to govern diverse space activities in line with its strategy and policy. This Law covers many challenging and complex items that have long been on the agenda of the Legal Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. This article aims to investigate the UAE National Space Law to bring to light the extent to which they are moving in line with the existing principles of international space law. Firstly, the Law, among other national legislation, will be assessed to determine whether it reshapes or reflects the existing international space law. Secondly, the key provisions of the Law will be highlighted and analyzed. The final part will discuss the correlation of this Law with the concept of NewSpace. In conclusion, the author will highlight the importance of multilateralism and collective decision-making processes in developing international space law principles. • The UAE supports the private sector through favorable legislation. • The UAE National Space Law covers complex issues of international space law. • The UAE defines outer space by applying both spatialist and functionalist. • The UAE provides a new interpretation of the principle of non-appropriation. • The UAE National Space Law is in precise conformity with NewSpace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the constantly changing field of architectural design and meeting the evolving demands of the space tourism industry, this study presents a case study focused on the design of a space tourism building in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates (UAE). The main objective of this study is to showcase the integration of simulation-driven and optimization-based methodologies in architectural design to anticipate forthcoming challenges and resolve design-related issues or constraints. This study employs a range of computational tools to optimize various design parameters, including sun path, radiation, shadow, outdoor comfort, and wind simulation, to conduct a more thorough assessment in the process of choosing the best-optimized design. In addition, a finite element analysis (FEA) was carried out to gain insights into the structural behavior of the chosen design under diverse physical conditions. This integration marks a paradigm shift in how architectural projects are conceptualized, developed, and realized by addressing complex challenges and enhancing the functionality, sustainability, and performance of architectural buildings. The findings of this case study demonstrate and prove the potential of simulation-driven and optimization-based design approaches in determining the future of architectural designs. As the UAE strives to become a center for space-related activities, this research helps to drive the realization of cutting-edge, sustainable, and user-centric architectural solutions, paving the way for the next generation of space tourism facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: Space tourism (ST) is an emerging frontier in tourism, attracting considerable stakeholders in the era of the New Space Economy. Thus, understanding the intentions and the characteristics of future space travelers is crucial. (2) Methods: Here, we validated the brief 11-item Space Tourism Propensity Questionnaire (STP-Q) and administered it, along with sociodemographic and psychological questionnaires, to 333 undergraduates in order to explore ST propensity and predictive factors. (3) Results: Linear regression analysis revealed that STP-Q scores are influenced by personality traits, particularly sensation seeking, social distance, and conscientiousness. Sensation seeking predicts the intention to engage in future space travel, while trait anxiety negatively impacts it. Surprisingly, neither sociodemographic features nor pro-environmental behaviors predict ST propensity, as expected. (4) Conclusions: The STP-Q is a cost-effective self-report for assessing ST propensity and can contribute to the evolving field of space tourism when used in combination with other questionnaires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author examines the jurisdictional dilemma of determining the appropriate approach to be applied to a crime that could potentially be committed during a space flight with tourists on board by assessing the place of commission of the crime. In addition, the study is based on comparisons under such sources of international law as the Outer Space Treaty (OST) and the Antarctic Treaty (AT). Based on the analysis of certain articles of these documents, the authors propose to regulate commercial space flights by the example of distinguishing the “tourist element”. This approach is based on the fact that Article 8 of the Antarctic Treaty specifically refers to the tourist as a subject of liability and that a person with tourist purposes is protected by national law. Therefore, for the proper international regulation of space tourism and improvement of the Outer Space Treaty, it is recommended to legitimise tourist purposes and to distinguish the status of non-astronaut tourists in order to establish liability for certain criminal acts. To support these initiatives, two cases are cited as examples: that of astronaut Ann McClain and Dr. Rodney David Marks. Thus, the first case emphasises the restricted applicability of criminal jurisdiction on the international space station, which is usually decided by the law of the country of a person’s nationality. The second case demonstrates that although the Antarctic Treaty can serve as an example for regulating space tourism, the jurisdictional battles between states on the territory of the site of an incident with a criminal element have undermined its effectiveness. Consequently, the authors conclude that it is necessary to introduce specific international rules to regulate commercial space flights, where the aspect of jurisdiction in the investigation of a crime committed by a non-astronaut tourist should be of paramount importance. It is specified that each partner of a space flight, both the state (in the case of public interests) and/or certain flight authorities operating under the auspices of a particular country, and a space company and/or a provider of relevant services (in the case of private interests), must register a commercial space flight and its structural objects as flight elements. In this case, each of these partners retains jurisdiction and control over the registered components.

The historic flight of cosmonaut Yuri Alekeseyevich Gagarin, in 1961, established the need for research regarding the physiological adaptations of the human body when exposed to the space environment. Since then, several morpho-functional transformations – varying between normal and pathological – have been identified within the organisms of astronauts subjected to the extremely disparate environments of the cosmos, consequently, comprehension and preparation of these transformations becomes essential,considering the possibilities (1) of returning to the Moon and (2) of initiating the trip to Mars. Accordingly, the purpose of this article – conceived as a narrative literature review – is to present the main aspects of the physiological modifications within the human body due to the extraterrestrial environment, with emphasis on cardiovascular, renal, hydroelectrolytic, hematological, immunological, respiratory, neurological, psychological, sensory, gastrointestinal, endocrine, musculoskeletal, integumentary, and genetic adaptations.

There is no doubt that space matters in today's time. We have become highly reliant on space science and technology; life without it cannot be imagined. No one can deny the significance of space safety. Thus, for the smooth functioning of life, there is a need for safety and security in outer space. So, it would not be wrong to say that we are at the mercy of these new space technologies. Currently, space debris has been facing universal embryonic challenge to the sustainable activities of outer space, and if not coped at the earliest, the world would face titanic catastrophe. From the preceding decades, there have been some crashing episodes that heightened the space debris build-up, and the speed at which myriad space activities have caused the production of debris. Such huge congregation of debris can pose dangers to the working space satellites. It could also fetch numerous challenges at the same time. In addition, the tremendous development in space technology, involvement of private sector in space activities, Anti Satellite tests adventure of space powers, weaponization and commercialization (space tourism) has made outer space more vulnerable. Presently, there is a dearth of stringent space laws with regards to the proliferation of space debris. So, these issues can have an impact on the long-term sustainability of space activities. Progressing and advanced space faring nations have found the worth of a proficient International Regime that can play a vital role for ordering, overseeing, and managing the research and advancement of space. The paper will magnet the attention towards the real legal, technical, financial and managerial facts. Some countries are capable of removing space debris but encounter many obstacles while applying such actions. Besides who will bear the expense for the removal of space debris as its prerequisites giant sum of money. This paper is going to put forward an independent international space regime (ISR). In order to meet the financial issues this paper proposed to establish a Global Debris Removal Fund. The old-fashioned space law regime is the core obstruction for the debris removal procedure. Finally, it is desirable that all legal issues be fixed through the innovative procedures and reformed international space law (ISL) system with inclusive coordination and co-operation. Thus, it would be the perfect ISR for the resolutions of remediation and mitigation of space debris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research proposes the spacetime scale to derive a space tourism economic model based on the General Relativity Theory. The space curvature is considered in the economic model analogized to a physic theory to expand the horizons of tourism economics. The deductive reasoning and analogy methods were adopted to propose the spacetime scale for space tourism economics, accommodating the conventional economic models of near-flat space commodities on the earth. Conclusions suggest conquering our perception acceptance from linear time to curvilinear spacetime for space tourism economics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]