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The static fertilisation experiment conducted in Skierniewice (Central Poland) since 1923 investigates the effect of mineral fertilisation with lime (CaNPK) or without lime (NPK) on the accumulation and release of phosphorus in reference to phosphorus sorption properties in the sandy soil profile. In the case of application of same doses of mineral fertilisers, the content of total phosphorus was higher in NPK than CaNPK soil. Parameters related to sorption capacity and bonding energy from Langmuir and Freundlich model of P sorption were significantly lower in CaNPK than NPK soil profile. This was particularly caused by a lower content of poorly crystallised hydro(oxide) aluminium and iron forms in CaNPK than NPK soil. Higher content of oxide-extractable and bioavailable phosphorus extracted with double lactate solution, dissolved reactive phosphorus in water solution as well as degree of phosphorus saturation in the CaNPK soil profile suggests higher mobility and possibility of occurrence of losses of phosphorus from the profile of limed soil than from acidified soil. Therefore, management of phosphate fertilizers on permanently limed sandy soils requires the optimisation of phosphorus doses to a greater degree corresponding to the actual take-off of the element with crop. An additional finding of the study was evidence of the possibility of re-estimating contents of bioavailable phosphorus and, as a consequence, the degree of phosphorus saturation with Mehlich3 method in strongly acid soil receiving P mineral fertilisers, which can make it difficult to use the test for fertiliser recommendation.

Despite the notable decline in potato cultivation areas across Poland and Europe, potatoes remain a crucial crop with diverse applications. Achieving the ambitious emission targets set by the EU for agricultural production may be easier with the practice of deep placement of slow-release fertilizers, which may increase yields and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. To examine the effect of deep placement of slow-release fertilizers on potato tuber yields, plant nutrient uptake, nutrient use efficiency, and soil N2O-N emissions, a two-year field experiment was conducted on loamy sand soil classified as Alblic Podzol (Ochric) soil, under temperate climate conditions prevailing in central Poland. The experiment involved a three-field rotation (potatoes, wheat, and peas), with potatoes being cultivated after peas in both years of the study. The experiment compared the effects of applying slow-release fertilizer at soil depths of 10 and 20 cm (DP10 and DP20) to fertilization with single-nutrient fertilizers applied to the soil surface (TD). The experiment utilized increasing doses of nitrogen and phosphorus, denoted as D0 (control), D1, D2, and D3, along with a standard dose of potassium across all tested fertilizer application methods. The results of this study confirmed that deep placement of slow-release fertilizers had limited effects on potato tuber yields. Deep placement of slow-release fertilizer increased plant nitrogen uptake by 2.8–13.5% compared to topdressing. Consequently, there was an improvement in nitrogen use efficiency from 29.8–75.0% on sites with fertilizer topdressing to 38.7–89.8% on sites with slow-release fertilizer deep placement. Phosphorus uptake by plants on sites with slow-release fertilizer deep placement was approximately 9.3–13.0% higher than on sites with fertilizer topdressing. This led to an enhancement in phosphorus use efficiency from about 15.1–19.5% on fertilizer topdressing sites to 19.4–25.4% on slow-release fertilizer deep placement sites. The impact of fertilizer deep placement was found to be less pronounced compared to the effects observed with increased nitrogen and phosphorus doses. The most important factors affecting tuber yield and nutrient use in potatoes were rainfall levels during the growing season. Deep fertilization did contribute to reduce soil N2O emissions by about 14%. However, further research involving different fertilization methods is needed to comprehensively assess the effectiveness of this practice in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review assesses the adaptability and effectiveness of the basic practices to mitigate the N2O emissions from the arable land in the climate, soil and agricultural conditions of Poland. We have analyzed the decrease in the nitrogen-based fertilization, selection of the fertilizer nitrogen forms, use of biological inhibitors of nitrogen transformation in the soil, control of the acidic soil reaction, reduction in the natural fertilizers use and afforestation of the low productive soils. The challenge evaluating the effectiveness of mitigation practices lies in the inadequacy of the national data on N2O soil emissions in particular agrotechnical conditions. In Poland, circumstances that favor intensive N2O emissions from the arable soils occur uncommonly, as shows the analysis of the literature reporting on the country climate, soil and agricultural conditions alongside the N2O emissions from soils under various cultivation conditions. Consequently, the effectiveness of mitigation practices that relies on an extensification of plant production may be insufficient. It can be assumed that, at the doses of nitrogen fitting the nutritional needs of crops, the soil N2O emissions are low and do not meaningfully differ from the emissions from untreated soils (literature data point to limited N2O emission from arable soils treated with N doses of ≤150-200 kg N·ha-1). The effectiveness of the nitrogen fertilization reduction as an N2O emissions mitigation practice is restricted to intensive farming. A universal registry of the mineral and natural fertilization use could help identify the agricultural holdings with a potential for high N2O emission and foster a targeted application of mitigation practices. It is suggested that normalization and maintenance of the optimum (i.e. close to neutral) soil pH should become a more common practice of N2O emissions mitigation in Poland in view of the extent of arable soils acidification and the literature data that indicate elevated N2O emissions from acid soils. Application of urease and nitrification inhibitors alongside nitrogen fertilization can be considered an effective practice of N2O emissions mitigation. Owing to economic reasons the use of nitrogen fertilizers with such additives is currently limited to non-agricultural segments of plant production. Afforestation of the low productive soils offers an attractive opportunity for mitigation of N2O emissions. Whereas N2O emissions from forest soils are considerably lower compared with those from the arable ones, the literature indicates that no N2O emissions mitigation is attained through a conversion of arable land to agroforestry. Considering the current forest area of Poland (24.9% of the total area) and the plans to increase the afforestation rate (to 33% in 2050) the measurable effects of this mitigation practice will only be seen in a long-term perspective.

Extreme meteorological phenomena resulting from climate change caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) require the implementation of CO2 mitigation practices from various industries, including agriculture. Owing to varying soil, climatic, and agrotechnical characteristics, they may have different efficiencies in mitigating soil CO2 emissions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of three mitigation practices (reduced tillage, deep fertilizer placement, and soil afforestation) on CO2 emissions from sandy soils in Central and Eastern Europe allowing the prediction of the mitigation effectiveness of these methods. The average soil CO2-C flux under a moldboard plow system ranged from 218.4 ± 108.4 to 263.7 ± 176.6 mg CO2-C m−2 h−1 and under a reduced tillage system ranged from 169.7 ± 118.7 to 163.6 ± 115.2 mg CO2-C m−2 h−1 in a year with normal meteorological conditions and under extreme drought conditions, respectively. In the dry growing season, similar amounts of CO2-C were released from the soil fertilized to the soil surface and after mineral fertilizers application at a depth of 10 cm and 20 cm (133.7 ± 155.8, 132.0 ± 147.5 and 131.0 ± 148.1 mg CO2-C m−2 h−1, respectively). Meanwhile, from the forest soil, the average CO2-C emission in the dry growing season was 123.3 ± 79 mg CO2-C m−2 h−1. The obtained results revealed that reduced tillage on sandy soil allowed for reduced CO2 emissions from the soil by 28.7–61.2% in normal and drought weather, respectively. Under drought conditions, deep fertilizer placement did not reduce CO2 emissions from sandy soil, and CO2 emissions from forest soils were even higher than from arable soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A pot experiment was conducted to assess the fertilizer value of ten digestates obtained from typical agricultural substrates (DA), and with the addition of waste from the agri-food industry (DW). The test plant was maize. The digestates obtained from typical agricultural substrates contained more N, P and Cu, and the digestates from co-fermentation of farm residue with organic industrial waste contained more K, Mg, Ca, Zn, Fe and Mn. The heavy metals present in the digestates did not exceed (except iron) their respective amounts found in unfermented pig slurry. The maize-growing experiment proved the positive effect of digestates on maize yields, which were more than three times as high in the DAfertilized combinations (mean 377.45 g f.m./pot) and more than twice as high in the DW-fertilized combinations (mean 223.25 g f.m./pot) as in the control combination (105.25 g f.m./pot). It is concluded that the tested digestates can be recommended for agricultural use, but their fertilizer value will depend mainly on their nitrogen content. When assessing the fertilizer value of digestates, the important issue is to focus on balancing the potassium dose introduced into the soil with the digestate rather than concentrating only on nitrogen or the monitoring of heavy metals content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of continuous application of mineral fertilizers with and without farmyard manure (FYM) and lime on phosphate sorption and soil-test phosphorus were studied in a long-term field experiment on a sandy loam soil. Regular application of manure and increased Corg content significantly increased the amounts of ammonium oxalate extractable Alox and Feox in the soil. At the same time, in the combinations with FYM, there was a significant (30%) reduction in one-point P sorption index (PSI) relative to the combinations without manure. The negative correlations of PSI with Alox, Feox and Corg may indicate that the specificity of the organic compounds originating from manure were the reason for the reduced activity of Feox and Alox in phosphate sorption. Liming significantly reduced the capacity for phosphorus retention and decreased the PSI by 21% by reducing Feox and Alox contents, increasing the amounts of interchangeable forms of Ca and K, and above all by significantly reducing the amount of (Alex). Regular application of manure caused a greater increase in the readily available P pool of water (P-WE) and calcium chloride (P-CaCl2) extractable P, than in the more recalcitrant P of double lactate (P-DL) and ammonium oxalate (Pox) extractable P. A reverse trend was found in the combination with TSP. The ammonium oxalate P saturation index (PSIox) increased in proportion to the amount of phosphorus supplied as FYM and TSP. The smaller amounts of phosphorus introduced with manure (25% of the amount supplied with TSP) caused PSIox to increase from 32% in the soils without FYM to 35.8% in those with FYM. The annual application of TSP at 50 kg/ha for more than 40 years increased PSIox from 36% in the combinations without TSP to 46% in those with TSP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The research aimed at the assessment of N2ON emissions from agricultural soils subjected to different soil pH conditions. It was conducted on the basis of three long-term field experiments in Skierniewice in Central Poland, maintained with no alterations since 1923. The investigation was carried out on limed (CaNPK) and acid (NPK) treatments. Measurements were conducted during the growing periods of 2012 and 2013. N2O-N emissions from the soil were measured in situ by means of infrared spectroscopy, using a portable FTIR spectrometer (Alpha, Bruker). Regardless of crop rotation, the N2O-N emissions from similarly treated, permanently (since 1923) acid and limed soils were similar. In the climate, soil and agricultural conditions of Central Poland, two optimum soil pH ranges with the highest N2O-N emissions are predicted (pH 4.3-4.4 and pH > 6.6). Liming of longterm limed treatments (CaNPK) does not increase soil N2O-N emissions. The relationship between soil pH and N2O-N fluxes is relatively well described by a linear regression equation only for limed soils, but not for acid soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of a two-year study (2012 and 2013) on the levels of DOC and N-NO3- in drainage water in long-term fertilization experiments (since 1923) in Skierniewice, central Poland. The study was conducted within three different systems of fertilization: mineral, mineralorganic and organic. On average, the highest concentration of DOC in drainage water was found in the organic fertilization system, lower in the mineral-organic, and the lowest in the mineral fertilization system. By contrast, the concentration of N-NO3- in drainage water was found to be higher in the mineral-organic system than in the organic and mineral fertilization systems. The highest concentration and leaching of N-NO3- in drainage water was found to occur in early spring. Nitrogen losses through leaching ranged from approx. 8 to 15 kg N/ha in the mineral fertilization system, and from approx. 21 to 38 kg N/ha in the mineralorganic system, and were higher in the year with greater total precipitation. In the organic fertilization system, by comparison, those losses were similar in both years of the study and amounted to approx. 22 kg N/ha. During the period of the most intense leaching of nitrogen from the soil, the flux of N-NO3- was accompanied by insufficient amounts of DOC necessary for highly effective denitrification. The ratio DOC/N-NO3- in drainage water during the intense leaching of nitrates indicated that approx. 38.5% of the N-NO3- load in the mineral system, approx. 27.1% in the mineral-organic system, and approx. 40.6% in the organic fertilization system could potentially have undergone denitrification. This means that approx. 60-70% of the nitrogen washed out from agricultural fields can permanently contaminate the hydrosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study, aimed at assessing the rate of soil respiration under different crop rotation and fertilization conditions, was carried out on long-term (since 1923) experimental plots with rye monoculture and 5-crop rotation in Skierniewice (Central Poland). The treatments included mineral-organic (CaNPK+M) and organic (Ca+M) fertilization (where M is farmyard manure). Soil respiration was measured in situ by means of infrared spectroscopy using a portable FTIR spectrometer Alpha. CO2 fluxes from CaNPK+M-treated soils under cereals cultivated in monoculture and crop rotations were not statically different. Respiration of soil under lupine cultivated in crop rotation was higher than under cereals. N-fertilization and its succeeding effect increased soil respiration, and significantly altered its distribution over the growing season. Our results indicate that in the climatic conditions of Central Europe, respiration of sandy soils is more dependent on the crop species and fertilization than on the crop rotation system. Omission of mineral fertilization significantly decreases soil respiration. The CO2 fluxes were positively correlated with soil temperature, air temperature, and soil content of NO3− and NH4+. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of a laboratory experiment focused on the assessment of the effect of different methods of application of ammonium nitrate (TD—top dressing and DP—deep placement) on N2O and CO2 emissions from soil without crop cover. Nitrogen application increased soil N2O–N fluxes by 24.3–46.4%, compared to untreated soil (NIL). N2O–N emissions from TD treatment were higher by 12.7%, compared to DP treatment. Soil CO2–C fluxes from DP treatment were significantly higher by 17.2%, compared to those from NIL treatment. Nonetheless, the differences between soil CO2–C fluxes from DP and TD treatments, as well as from TD and NIL treatments, were of no statistical significance. The cumulative greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (a sum of cumulative soil emissions of CO2–C and N2O–N after conversion to the equivalent of CO2–C) from both N-fertilized soils were similar, and higher by 20% than from untreated soil. The obtained data show that the effect of reduction of N2O–N soil emissions gained by deep placement of nitrogen fertilizer was completely lost through an increase in CO2–C emissions from the soil. This suggests that deep placement of nitrogen fertilizers in sandy soil without crop cover might not lead to a mitigation of soil GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]