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Society has expectations that dictate "acceptable" gender portrayals for men and women. Societal expectations are often produced and reinforced by the media. Using content analytic methods, the present study examined masculinity as gender performance among fraternity Instagram pages. A total of 393 Instagram posts were analyzed across five dimensions of masculinity. Our results indicated that more than two-thirds of the posts had at least one dimension of hegemonic masculinity. Furthermore, there were dimensions of hegemonic masculinity that occurred more frequently than other dimensions. Additionally, there were significant differences between the number of the likes received for posts with specific indicators of masculinity. Future research and theoretical implications regarding these dimensions of masculinity are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research explores the vital role of the ecological footprint as a pivotal indicator in ecological assessments and its significance in advancing environmental sustainability. Investigating the intricate dynamics of human activities, resource consumption, waste management, and ecological impact, this study underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding. Key aspects such as renewable energy, economic growth, biomass capacity, and trade policy within the expanding field of energy consumption are thoroughly examined, with data collected from 624 randomly selected pupils. The research methodology involved pre- and post-activity knowledge assessments. The research places a particular focus on the innovative examination of early childhood education as a potent tool for reducing the ecological footprint. Drawing on insights from prior research, the authors argue that instilling ecological awareness and sustainable practices at a young age can yield lasting benefits. This article highlights successful collaboration between higher education institutions and elementary schools, specifically through the "Green Ambassadors in the Community" course at the Holon Institute of Technology (HIT). This study not only emphasizes the crucial role of educational institutions in fostering sustainable practices but also advocates for the urgent integration of environmental education into early childhood curricula. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the approach of developed countries to the sustainable development of nature-based tourism (NBT) can be a model for developing countries. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the differences of opinion from different aspects. This study aimed to highlight the differences between the attitudes of experts in developing and developed countries on sustainable development indicators of NBT.‏ ‏Given that no such comparison has been made so far, this study intends to address this gap. Indicators were identified from three aspects: economic, social, and environmental, and they were approved through the use of the Delphi approach. The mean scores were determined based on a 7-point Likert scale and compared using an independent t-test. In developing countries, economic indicators (Mean = 5.779) and in developed countries, environmental indicators (Mean = 6.296) were the most crucial. Paying more attention to environmental indicators in developing countries can be an excellent way to improve the sustainable development of NBT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The abundance of country-level socio-economic development indices is of limited help unless sub-country-level indices on the quality of policies are also available. Tracing the regional indices landscape of India, this study proposes the state-level Environment Policy Stringency Index for Indian states. Capturing Indian states' policies across six areas with weight determination done deploying principal component analysis and Data Envelopment Analysis-Benefit of Doubt approach, the composite index calculated in the study also examines the scores grouping the sub-national units based upon the income levels. Besides ranking for inter-state comparison, the proposed index is significantly associated with particulate matter pollution levels in states. This study has three key contributions: conceptualising the principal-based sub-national index while making a case for developing sub-country level policy indices, identifying state-level environment policy variables and constructing an Environment Policy Stringency Index for Indian states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study identifies the presence of human trafficking indicators in a UK-based sample of sex workers who advertise their services online. To this end, we developed a crawling and scraping software that enabled the collection of information from 17, 362 advertisements for female sex workers posted on the largest dedicated platform for sex work services in the UK. We then established a set of 10 indicators of human trafficking and a transparent and replicable methodology through which to detect their presence in our sample. Most of the advertisements (58.3%) contained only one indicator, while 3,694 of the advertisements (21.3%) presented 2 indicators of human trafficking. Only 1.7% of the advertisements reported three or more indicators, while there were no advertisements that featured more than four. 3, 255 advertisements (19.0%) did not contain any indicators of human trafficking. Based on this analysis, we propose that this approach constitutes an effective screening process for quickly identifying suspicious cases, which can then be examined by more comprehensive and accurate tools to identify if human trafficking is occurring. We conclude by calling for more empirical research into human trafficking indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women's empowerment programs play a critical role in achieving the United Nations' (UN's) sustainable development goal of "Gender Equality". However, non-profit organizations (NPOs) running women's empowerment (WE) programs face challenges in monitoring, assessing, and evaluating the social impact (SI) and program performance due to the lack of solid guidelines. This study aims to analyze the impact and outcome evaluation indicators of WE programs by providing a quantitative tool. A multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) model is proposed to identify and prioritize the performance indicators by utilizing Fuzzy TOPSIS (FTOPSIS) and Fuzzy AHP (FAHP) in a combined methodology. Results validated the identification and classification of the indicators by their importance and viability. In a qualitative study with NPOs working on WE in Turkey, social impact and outcome evaluation indicators are defined and ranked by criteria set in the proposed combined MCDM framework. The study aims to contribute to the theoretical frameworks and practices on social impact and outcome evaluation of women's empowerment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work aimed in highlighting the role of government departments that are authorized to determine and ensure the formation and monitoring of economic security indicators and quantify the impact of international sanctions on the country's economic security using Russia as a case study. The research authors analyzed the activities of state institutions, government bodies, on the basis of which it was possible to develop a system of indicators enabling one to perform a quantitative assessment of the level of economic security of the state. The analysis of these indicators for the time from 2007 to 2019 issued by the state monitoring services, revealed that the international sanctions imposed on Russia in 2014 produced no significant medium-term effect on its economic security level. The decreasing tendency of the indicator designating the share of innovative goods (works, services) in the total volume of goods (works, services) was the only exception from this inference. The present findings might be useful for the qualified persons of the Russian Federation and third-party specialists, public organizations and partners to assess the prospects for cooperation with relevant government agencies, namely for clear understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of working with them when elaborating strategies and tactics in unleashing sanctions and counter-sanctions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the suitability of the quarter mouthpiece chamber vacuum (MPCV) as an indicator for cessation of quarter milk flow to potentially adjust the teat end vacuum at a quarter level. We tested the hypothesis that a MPCV increase is a clear indicator of quarter milk flow cessation. In addition, we tested if a quarter-individual vacuum reduction at MPCV increase reduces the mechanical effect on the teat. Ten dairy cows were milked twice daily with a quarter-specific vacuum supply with continuously high (51 kPa; TRT51) or low vacuum setting (41 kPa; TRT41), or high vacuum setting combined with a quarter-specific vacuum reduction by 10 kPa immediately after the quarter-specific MPCV increase (TRT51/41). Whole udder milk flow was continuously recorded. Each treatment was repeated at 4 subsequent milkings. The high vacuum settings (TRT51; TRT51/41) reached higher values in peak flow rate and average milk flow and consequently shorter machine-on time. The time from start of milking until the steep increase of the MPCV was shorter in front than rear quarters, and hence the time from start of MPCV increase until end of milking was longer in front than rear teats. Teat condition of the right front teats was measured for teat wall diameter by ultrasound and teat tissue thickness by cutimeter at 5 and 20 min after each experimental milking. The teat measurements were taken at the teat tip (distal barrel) and 2 cm above the teat tip (proximal barrel). The proximal teat wall diameter tended to be higher in TRT51 than in TRT41, both 5 and 20 min after milking. The distal teat wall diameter at 5 min was greater in TRT51 than in TRT41. In TRT51/41 the teat wall diameter at both locations was intermediate, not significantly different from either TRT51 or TRT41. The distal teat tissue thickness was greater in TRT51 than in TRT41, and tended to be greater in TRT51/41 than in TRT41 at 5 min. The proximal teat tissue thickness at 5 min was higher in TRT51 and TRT51/41 than in TRT41. The teat tissue thickness decreased from 5 to 20 min only in the proximal barrel. The quarter-individual MPCV increase appears to be a suitable indicator of the cessation of milk flow. The lack of a significant reduction of mechanical effect on the teat by a reduced vacuum of 41 kPa indicates that the vacuum level chosen may be still too high under conditions of a separate vacuum supply for each quarter, which prevents a vacuum drop caused by the whole udder milk flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mastitis is one of the most frequent and costly diseases affecting dairy cattle. Natural antibodies (immunoglobulins) and cyclophilin A (CyPA), the most abundant member of the family of peptidyl prolyl cis / trans isomerases, in milk may serve as indicators of mastitis resistance in dairy cattle. However, genetic information for CyPA is not available, and knowledge on the genetic and nongenetic relationships between these immune-related traits and somatic cell score (SCS) and milk yield in dairy cattle is sparse. Therefore, we aimed to comprehensively evaluate whether immune-related traits consisting of 5 Ig classes (IgG, IgG 1 , IgG 2 , IgA, and IgM) and CyPA in the test-day milk of Holstein cows can be used as genetic indicators of mastitis resistance by evaluating the genetic and nongenetic relationships with SCS in milk. The nongenetic factors affecting immune-related traits and the effects of these traits on SCS were evaluated. Furthermore, the genetic parameters of immune-related traits according to health status and genetic relationships under different SCS environments were estimated. All immune-related traits were significantly associated with SCS and directly proportional. Additionally, evaluation using a classification tree revealed that IgA, IgG 2 , and IgG were associated with SCS levels. Genetic factor analyses indicated that heritability estimates were low for CyPA (0.08) but moderate for IgG (0.37), IgA (0.44), and IgM (0.44), with positive genetic correlations among Ig (0.25–0.96). We also evaluated the differences in milk yield and SCS of cows between the low and high groups according to their sires' estimated breeding value for immune-related traits. In the high group, IgA had a significantly lower SCS in milk at 7 to 30 d compared with that in the low group. Furthermore, the Ig in milk had high positive genetic correlations between healthy and infected conditions (0.82–0.99), suggesting that Ig in milk under healthy conditions could interact with those under infected conditions, owing to the genetic ability based on the level of Ig in milk. Thus, Ig in milk are potential indicators for the genetic selection of mastitis resistance. However, because only the relationship between immune-related traits and SCS was investigated in this study, further study on the relationship between clinical mastitis and Ig in milk is needed before Ig can be used as an indicator of mastitis resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses how the right to science can benefit from the obligations and mechanisms related to anticipation of other, social and cultural rights. It considers how these obligations can be extended to the right to science and how they can benefit the right to science by ricochet. Hence, this article shows, on the one hand, the potential that the obligations of prevention, precaution and due diligence, when applied to, social and cultural rights, have to be extended into the context of the right to science. This analysis of obligations is followed by identifying mechanisms capable of addressing the anticipatory dimension required for implementing this right. It is therefore explored, on the other hand, how mechanisms such as indicators and HRIAs, considered useful in the framework of, social and cultural rights, can play a role in the implementation of the anticipatory aspects linked to the right to science. This analysis is based mainly on the interpretative function of quasi-judicial and jurisdictional human rights bodies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the article is to study the main parameters characterizing the quality of life of the population of Kazakhstan in modern economic conditions and develop proposals for its improvement. The methodology of the study is based on a holistic approach, including the use of objective indicators of the quality of life that determine the material conditions and means of human livelihood, and subjective assessments of the population, social groups of their material and social well-being. Measuring and evaluating the level and quality of life of the population of Kazakhstan based on an integrated approach includes the use of the following methods: component analysis, normative and stratification, integral indicators, and subjective assessments of the population. The leading blocks of the life support system are considered, including the assessment of income and consumption in the conditions of maintaining socio-economic income differentiation; the social qualitative parameters of the life support system of the population, the most important indicators of the implementation of priority areas of development of labor potential in the innovative economy, modernization of housing policy are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: School bullying is prevalent in children and adolescents. Bullying victims are seen higher risk of negative psychological outcomes. Previously published studies suggested that social indicators may pose significant influence on bullying victimization. However, the association between social poverty and bullying victimization has not been exclusively discussed. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, we analyzed the association between 6 commonly used social poverty indicators (Poverty Headcount Ratio, PHR; Poverty Gap, PG; Squared Poverty Gap, SPG; monthly household per capita income, PCI; Watts' Poverty Index, WPI; the Gini Index, Gini) and the prevalence of school bullying at country level by using the Global school-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) database. Results: Altogether 16 countries were included into the final analysis, with school bullying victimization prevalence ranged from 12.9 to 47.5%. Bubble plots revealed statistically significant associations between the three indicators measuring absolute poverty level (PHR, PCI, WPI) and bullying victimization. Subsequently performed principal component regression indicated that, for all types of bullying victimization, the increase of absolute poverty level was related to elevated prevalence rates, and the association was particularly strong for verbal bullying victimization. Conclusions: Our study results may suggest that absolute social poverty is an important parameter for constructing and implementing school bullying victimization intervention strategies and measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tourism sector has the potential to contribute significantly to economic growth. In addition to the systematic support and promotion of tourism, it is necessary to know the factors that influence its development at both regional and national level. The aim of this paper is to analyse the significant social indicators in relation to the number of overnight stays at the level of the Prešov Self-Governing Region for the period 2001 - 2019 (before the Covid-19 pandemic). Based on the results of the correlation analysis (1st stage of the research) a significant relationship of the number of overnight stays with the social indicators was confirmed at the regional level: the economically active population with and without primary education, the number of students, the number of days of the average duration of 1 case of incapacity for work. The results of the research show a heterogeneous development of the studied social indicators in the period under study. At the same time, we note their degressive influence on the number of overnight stays. The simple linear regression model used reaches lower predictive values at the regional level, but the influence of the identified factors is not insignificant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relevance of the study is due to the need to improve the efficiency of budget investments in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Performance audits of the use of these investments will reveal opportunities to optimize expenditures and increase the overall socio-economic impact, which is significant for the sustainable development of the country. In order to improve the efficiency and socio-economic return of budget expenditures, this study is focused on evaluating the efficiency of budget investments during the performance audit. This study is aimed at reviewing the role and capabilities of the performance audit, as a mechanism of public financial control of budget investments. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is used as a method for evaluating efficiency. Taking into account the reference management, the DEA algorithm is proposed to address the issue of limited input and output data to evaluate the national socio-economic development indicators. The special study of the budget investments’ technical performance in the regions of Kazakhstan shows that this method can be used since it improves the flexibility and performance of evaluation in the performance audit. The stability of the concept of performance audit is therefore confirmed, showing the need for a periodic revision of the legislative and methodological base. The study highlighted the main challenges of performance audit of budget investments in the Republic of Kazakhstan and provided recommendations for improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research note examines the relationship between social capital, economic globalization, and COVID-19 vaccines in U.S. counties. The author argues that the positive health benefits of community-level social capital can be undermined by import competition. Leveraging data from U.S. counties this note shows that the positive correlation between community social capital and vaccine uptake is lower in communities harder hit by import competition. This is however only the case for bridging and not for bonding social capital. These findings indicate that economic globalization can undermine the positive health impact of community social capital which has implications for inequalities in public health as well as responses to major health crises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the relationship between intergenerational educational mobility and attitudes in relation to fairness in European societies. The dimensions of fairness considered capture a broader notion of social justice by targeting four distinct principles: equality, equity, need and entitlement (Hülle et al., Social Indicators Research 136:663–692, 2018). We investigate how attitudes towards those principles differ across individuals who experienced upward, stable, or downward trajectories of educational mobility in relation to their parents. To offer a comparative framework, we use nationally representative surveys of public opinion from 29 countries who participated in the 2018 round of the European Social Survey (ESS), which included a unique battery of questions on attitudes towards fairness. Using Mobility Contrast Models (MCMs), we identify the independent role of educational mobility in shaping attitudes regarding four types of fairness, which encapsulate the broader concept of social justice. We explore notable variation at the country level, although the pooled sample indicates that upward mobility significantly predicts a higher support for the principle of equality. In addition, this relationship is stronger among the more upwardly mobile (i.e., a greater difference between a respondent's education and that of their parent). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study addresses the contextual vulnerability of farmers using participatory risk mapping with different stakeholders. Additionally, through logistic regression, it identifies factors that influence the perception of climate risk. The results indicate that the perception and relevance of stressors vary among different stakeholders, as well as among farmers of different genders and ages. Non-climatic stressors are more relevant to farmers' livelihoods than climatic ones, although their interaction can exacerbate the impacts. Non-climate stressors identified in the past in the region continue to exacerbate communities' vulnerability. The lack of technical assistance is the most serious stressor. The lack of land and the delayed rains are the most severe stressors. Farmers' knowledge of climate change did not influence their perception of climate risks. Public climate adaptation policies should consider the local context, as well as the gender and age distributions of the public involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the challenges of financial crises, poverty, and environmental sustainability in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the COVID-19 pandemic. It highlights the impact of the pandemic on extreme poverty and emphasizes the need for strategic steps to achieve sustainable development post-pandemic. The article argues for a new eco-social contract that includes marginalized groups and emphasizes the urgency of saving and sustaining the environment. It also presents a case study on the resilience of small-scale fishing communities in Bali as an example of how innovative strategies and community involvement can help recover from a crisis. Overall, the article calls for a global transition to achieve a livable planet through reducing poverty and climate change in synergy with an eco-social contract. [Extracted from the article]

Community-based tourism development represents a facet of sustainable tourism. Keranggan Tourist Village's diverse potential attractions, facilities, and supportive communities are a prime example of an actively developing tourist village. While Keranggan applies community-based development principles, there is room for enhancement through more effective strategies. This research seeks to analyze the economic, social, and cultural dimensions of Community-Based Tourism (CBT) in the development of Keranggan Tourist Village. Drawing from reputable journals, the literature review method serves as the research approach. Economic indicators focus on implementing green entrepreneurship, while social indicators emphasize enhancing the performance of Pokdarwis. Cultural indicators encompass initiatives such as information exchange between local communities and guests, conducting comparative studies with other tourist villages, and providing tourism-related training for the community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims to evaluate public transport access distribution based on a framework of vertical equity principles. In this method, traffic analysis zones (TAZs) are analyzed by comparing the estimated transit demand with the existing geographical distribution of the network's benefits (e.g., accessibility and mobility). The framework deploys the concept of connectivity power to measure the distribution of a transit system's supply. On the other hand, demand is measured by an exhaustive index, the weighted average of four social indicators, namely the number of low-income people, the population, the households without vehicles, and the disabled in the TAZs. These weights can differ from city to city depending on culture, politics, social behavior, and costs of effective parameters such as fuel, parking, and tickets in that particular city. The framework was applied to the comprehensive transit network of Tehran, Iran. Finally, diagonal and radical lines linking the city's southwest to its northeast are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document is a correction notice for an article titled "A VEA Benefit-of-the-Doubt Model for the HDI" published in the journal Social Indicators Research. The correction addresses incorrect values in Table 6 of the original article and provides the corrected table. The table presents the results of the F1 and F2 tests, comparing the efficiency distributions of various VEA models. It includes rankings for different countries and regions, such as Norway, Australia, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Qatar, with stars indicating the statistical significance of the results. The publisher, Springer Nature, remains neutral regarding jurisdictional claims and institutional affiliations. [Extracted from the article]

• Cultural heritage institutions are evaluated by combining objective and subjective value indicators that reveal their economic value and social impact. • Services linked to public goods are higher valuated than those closer to the market. • The most satisfied users are more likely to make a monetary contribution. • Results justify the function of libraries as providers of public goods and enhancing social wellbeing. • The set of public libraries in Medellín is taken as a case study, enlarging applications in developing countries. Evaluation of cultural heritage organisations and the returns on the resources they are provided with is becoming increasingly important, not only because of the economic efficiency implications but also vis-à-vis measuring their performance in terms of social policy and public governance. The present study seeks to estimate the social impact of libraries, as heritage representative institutions, from the case of the Medellin Public Library System (Spanish acronym – SBPM) in Colombia. This network of libraries is made up of 26 units that – in addition to traditional functions involving loans and custody – offer activities geared towards personal development and the enhancement of the community. The proposed method entails a combination of direct observation indicators together with other indirect or subjective indicators aimed at gauging social impact, applying two different yet complementary techniques; social return on investment (SROI), and contingent valuation (CV). The indicators obtained evidence different results when including subjective valuations in the calculations based on direct observations and financial returns, in line with the differences between the notions of price and value. Based on the findings to emerge, we show that public libraries are socially viable institutions and that they contribute towards the subjective well-being of their users, thereby legitimizing the public investment made to ensure their existence and functioning in the areas where they are located. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. The purpose of this article is to study the impact of science and education on the efficiency of social production and quality of life in the context of global integration processes. Methods. The methods used in the study are literature review, statistical data analysis, and empirical research. To obtain the results, we analysed data on the quality of education and research in Ukraine and other European countries. Results. The study found that the quality of education and research is crucial for the competitiveness of society in the context of globalisation and rapid changes in the economy and technology. Scientific achievements and educational standards are key indicators of a state's readiness to meet the challenges of the present and its ability to attract investment, attract talented young people, and ensure sustainable economic dynamics. Conclusions. The obtained results emphasise the critical role of education and research in the process of achieving sustainable development of society. The need for targeted improvement of education and support for research is recognised as a key factor in achieving a high quality of life, competitiveness, and prosperity of the country. Prospects. Future research could expand the understanding of the interaction between education, science, and the economy in a globally competitive environment. The impact of digital transformation on educational and scientific processes should also be investigated, and practical models of cooperation between universities and the private sector should be developed to stimulate innovation and societal development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological developments over the last two decades have allowed researchers to employ advanced tracking technologies to collect high-resolution spatial and temporal data. Despite the extensive use of these technologies in tourism research, they have not yet been applied to the existing indicators of tourism demand. The current paper aims to fill this lacuna, proposing the use of tracking technologies to measure tourist activity in destinations and, in particular, extreme conditions such as tourist saturation and overtourism. It introduces a new index for tourism demand, the Intensity-Density Index (IDI), based on high-resolution data in time and space. After presenting an overview of the common indicators for measuring tourism demand, the most common indicators, the Tourism Intensity Rate (TIR) and the Tourism Density Rate (TDR), are calculated twice, using traditional methods and advanced tracking technologies. The second calculation is based on a unique survey conducted in Israel between 2015 and 2017, which included some 3,000 tourists whose activity in the destination was documented entirely on a national level and at high resolution. Finally, the methodology for calculating high-resolution (HR) indicators using GPS data is presented, resulting in the IDI. Advanced tracking technologies' use in calculating the IDI not only helps present tourism activity more accurately in terms of time and space but can also be applied in tourism management to serve as a tool for effective planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intentional injuries claimed nearly two hundred lives every day in the United States in 2020, about two-thirds of them suicides, each a story of irretrievable human loss. This essay addresses the complex intersection of injurious behavior with mental illness and access to firearms. It explores what more can be done to stop gun violence while respecting the rights of lawful gun owners, preserving the dignity of persons with mental illnesses, and promoting racial equity. Strategies to prevent firearm injury in the United States are uniquely conditioned by a constitutional right to bear arms, the cultural entrenchment and prevalence of private gun ownership, and strident political disagreement on regulatory solutions to stem gun violence. Broad implementation of a range of complementary policies is needed, including community-based programs to address the social and developmental determinants of violence, improved access to a continuum of mental health services, firearm restrictions based on behavioral indicators of risk (not mental illness, per se), licensing for firearm purchase or ownership, comprehensive background checks for firearm purchase, and supply-side approaches to interrupt illegal firearm markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volunteering, STEM education and occupation, and information-processing skills such as literacy, numeracy, and digital problem-solving skills are important indicators of a nation's well-being as they represent civic engagement, economic development, and the human capital of the population. Although these critical social indicators have been previously examined in silos, the interrelationships are yet to be examined in the adult populations in the United States. The current study analyzed the 2012/2014/2017 U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) data of adults aged between 25 and 65 years old (n = 8,330). Results from the structural equation model showed that STEM education and occupation as well as information-processing skills independently promote volunteer participation. Also, STEM education and occupation are positively associated with information-processing skills. Yet, when simultaneously examining the mediation relationship, STEM education and occupation are no longer the promoters of volunteering. Findings from the current study can provide preliminary education, labor, and social policy implications for promoting the nation's economy and well-being, and inform future research to disentangle complex interrelationships across the important social indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite Egypt's economic growth and educational expansion, gender inequalities and a lack of economic opportunities for young adults persist. Existing studies on social change in Egypt often rely on aggregate trend indicators or focus on isolated point‐in‐time work or family outcomes. This study adopts a life course perspective to (1) trace cohort changes in work‐family life courses for individuals born between 1956 and 1988 (N = 19,970) from 1965 to 2018, (2) assess gender inequality trends in life courses across cohorts, and (3) link different life course patterns to aggregate development indicators. Using retrospective data from the Egyptian Labor Market Panel, multichannel sequence and cluster analyses identify ten typical life course profiles that can be divided into: a state‐structured life course; and various manifestations of family‐ and market‐structured life courses. The economically secure state‐structured life course declined in favor of rising market‐structured and family‐structured life courses. Gender inequality in employment increased across cohorts. GDP growth was associated with economically insecure market‐structured life courses for men and family‐structured life courses of economic inactivity for women. Cohort change in life courses was most rapid in the transition period from authoritarian socialism to unregulated crony capitalism (1980–1990) when cohorts born in the 1970s reached adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last three decades, Ecuador has shifted from being one of the most violent countries in Latin America to being one of the safest countries. Recently, however, it became a country with high rates of intentional homicides again. This research aims to examine the impact of social (economic progress and unemployment) and institutional (corruption and government efficiency) indicators on the rate of intentional homicides in Ecuador during the 1990–2020 period. We use cointegration techniques with structural breaks and single-frequency Fourier cumulative causality models. The findings of the Hatemi (ME 35, 497–505) and as reported by Maki (ICJR, 30, 10–29) cointegration model show a long-term equilibrium relationship between five series. The structural breaks coincide with the application of public security policies and structural changes in this economy. In addition, we find a unique Fourier cumulative frequency causal relationship between the analyzed series. To reduce violent deaths, policy-makers must execute strategies that aim to improve the population's quality of life, implement corruption control mechanisms, and promote government efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large-scale sample surveys are not designed to produce reliable estimates for small areas. Here, small area estimation methods can be applied to estimate population parameters of target variables to detailed geographic scales. Small area estimation for noncontinuous variables is a topic of great interest in the social sciences where such variables can be found. Generalized linear mixed models are widely adopted in the literature. Interestingly, the small area estimation literature shows that multivariate small area estimators, where correlations among outcome variables are taken into account, produce more efficient estimates than do the traditional univariate techniques. In this article, the author evaluate a multivariate small area estimator on the basis of a joint mixed model in which a small area proportion and mean of a continuous variable are estimated simultaneously. Using this method, the author "borrows strength" across response variables. The author carried out a design-based simulation study to evaluate the approach where the indicators object of study are the income and a monetary poverty (binary) indicator. The author found that the multivariate approach produces more efficient small area estimates than does the univariate modeling approach. The method can be extended to a large variety of indicators on the basis of social surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fit for 55 calls for an expansion of the Emissions Trading Scheme and a reform of the Energy Tax Directive that will lead to higher energy prices. The goal is to reduce household energy consumption and achieve the 2030 energy and climate targets. Our study attempts to answer the question of whether this can be achieved without jeopardizing human development in all EU member states. We use the Gini coefficient, Hoover index, and rank correlation coefficients to examine differences in household energy consumption across Member States, and a path model to analyze the direct and indirect relationship between these variables and human development. Our results show significant, but decreasing over time, spatial differences in household energy consumption among the countries and country groups studied. The path analysis reveals an important link: household energy use has a significant direct (and independent) impact on human development, not only indirectly through other socio-economic-environmental variables. In other words, until the two indicators are decoupled, households in seven Member States will have to increase their energy consumption in order not only to maintain but also to raise the level of human development achieved and to achieve social and economic convergence in the European Union. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opportunity as a construct has been widely examined in for-profit entrepreneurship research, but it is scarcely studied in the context of social entrepreneurship. It is being observed that many entrepreneurs venture into social enterprise because they perceive it as an opportunity. This study aims to address this phenomenon by extensively identifying the opportunity indicators that promote entrepreneurs to pursue social entrepreneurship. We accomplish this by employing a mixed-methods approach wherein we used both quantitative and qualitative data from experts and analysed it using a hybrid approach of Delphi rounds and the best-worst method. We identified 13 opportunity indicators from the literature, and in the first round of Delphi, four new indicators were added to the list by a panel of 24 experts drawn from industry and academia across India. In the second round of the Delphi method, 18 of the 24 experts took part and rated the importance of each indicator on a 5-point Likert scale. Depending on the availability of the experts, both rounds of Delphi were held in person and virtually. Based on the cut-off levels for standard deviation, interquartile range, and probability of occurrence, experts agreed on 16 indicators. Furthermore, a best-worst method approach was used to prioritise these indicators based on the opinions of industry and academic experts. The study used a theoretical lens of entrepreneurial opportunity and its two different views: objectively discovered and subjectively perceived. The results revealed a consensus among academicians and practitioners for objectively discovered opportunity indicators, which gave the highest priority to "institutional support" and "funding opportunities." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new United Nations (UN) sustainable development (SD) agenda in 2015 heralded the beginning of a new global effort for the planet's sustainability through the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). They provide a framework for all countries, regardless of income levels, to guide national planning for achieving SD. Climate change may impact almost all SDGs and vice versa, though, of the 17 SDGs, the 13th is designated to climate action. The growing concern for environmental degradation has raised the question of how countries will manage to achieve SDGs and whether the answer can be found in their institutions. Reducing emissions necessitates environmental policies influenced by political institutions that shape policy adoption and implementation. This paper aims to analyze the effects of institutions adopting the dimensions of good governance on particular SDG indicators of the 13th SDG by using a Nonparametric Kernel Regression framework and a panel data set of 5 Western Balkans (WB) countries from 2000 to 2020. The target countries share the ambition of EU accession and hold the EU candidate status. WB countries spark our interest because of the severe institutional governance problems, which limit their ability to progress towards SDGs. The paper's empirical analysis uses a specific SDG indicator for the 13 SDG of the Europe Sustainable Development Report, similar to that used by the OECD for the report on Measuring Distance to the SDG Targets. The analysis includes as independent variables the World Governance Indicators (WGI). Contributing to the existing literature on institutions and SD, the novelty of our approach is the use of the WGI with SDG indicators in measuring the impact of quality of governance on the progress towards the 13th SDG referring to climate action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research in to analyze the incidence of the economic and social indicators of Mexico and China on the flows of direct foreign investment. For this purpose, it is analyzed first the behavior of the main macroeconomic variables of these economies. Subsequently, the theories of foreign direct investment are reviewed in order to understand its nature, motivations, and ways in which it is presented. From which the methodological features of the econometric models applied to each country are addressed. The results establish that in the Mexican case, the value added in the manufacturing industry and intentional homicides determined the flow of direct foreign investment to the country. While salaries, public spending on education and intentional homicides motivated foreign direct investment in the case of China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of this research is to determine whether good governance indicators are effective on economic and social indicators in the Central Asian Turkish Republics and Türkiye. In this study conducted within the scope of the stated research problem, the economic and social effects of good governance indicators in the Central Asian Turkic Republics and Türkiye for the period 2004-2020 were examined using the Banerjee and Carrion-i-Silvestre (2017) cointegration test and panel AMG estimation method. According to the cointegration analysis results, cointegration relationship has been found between the series in the models. According to the results of cointegration coefficient estimation with the panel AMG estimation method; participation and accountability have a positive effect on foreign direct investment inflows in Azerbaijan, while the effectiveness of governments and quality of regulations have a positive effect on foreign direct investment inflows in Uzbekistan. It is reached the conclusion that political stability in Azerbaijan, the effectiveness of governments in Turkmenistan and all good governance indicators in Uzbekistan are factors that positively affect the level of human development. According to the results obtained for the overall panel, accountability and rule of law indicators have a negative relationship with the human development index. Accountability and political stability in Azerbaijan, effectiveness of governments and quality of regulations in Tajikistan, and all good governance indicators in Kyrgyzstan positively affect the level of per capita income. The fact that the relationship between good governance and economic and social indicators differs among the countries analyzed reflects the importance of political and institutional factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Fund for European Aid to the Most Deprived (FEAD), the European Union (EU) acts as a 'material supporter' of national welfare states. Remarkably, the European Social Fund Plus, integrating ESF and FEAD, is presented as the main financial instrument to implement the European Pillar of Social Rights (EPSR). This raises the question of what these levers can do in terms of financial support, especially for Member States with greater social needs. By using the Social Scoreboard indicators that monitor the implementation of the EPSR, we analyse the size and distribution of ESF and FEAD according to Member States' economic capacity, social needs and efforts required to meet the European social goals. We find that the funds benefit relatively more the poorer Member States who also tend to have greater social needs. However, especially for ESF, there are significant deviations from this general pattern. Some countries consistently receive less funding than others with similar levels of social needs, and vice versa. Moreover, if, from the perspective of upward convergence, the budgets are expressed as a percentage of the efforts required to lift all income‐poor citizens to the EU‐wide at‐risk‐of‐poverty threshold, countries who need to make the greatest efforts receive less funding. These outcomes are partly driven by the funds' allocation rules, which give only little importance to the great social discrepancies between countries. This raises the question whether social needs should be taken more into account in the distribution of the funds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainability issues in agrifood chains are receiving increasing attention. However, few studies have demonstrated the dynamic interrelationships between economic, environmental, and social indicators. Regarding these indicators as components of sustainable development, through sensitivity simulations, we found that (1) organic farming techniques as key to environmental and economic improvement by indirect sales and (2) direct sales channels can strengthen environmental and social benefits. The findings suggest that developing diversified production and sales channels is essential for the sustainable development of organic agriculture to maintain economic, social, and environmental sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microfinance is a dominant strategy used to promote rural development around the world. Rather than directly track its impact on borrowers, however, microfinance institutions rely on indicators of financial performance adopted from commercial banking as proxies for positive social impact. Yet, as critical research has shown, the industry depends on coercive peer pressure, social shaming and various forms of gendered exploitation to achieve its high rates of loan repayment. This article maintains that there is a need to investigate how the microfinance industry's own indicators of impact contribute to the ways microfinance can harm borrowers. Based on qualitative research in Cambodia during 2021 and 2022, the article demonstrates how financial performance indicators, most notably portfolio quality, both hide and exacerbate the ways that borrowers juggle debt between formal and informal lenders. In making this argument, the article advances critical scholarship on microfinance by showing how microfinance repayment structures debt‐juggling practices in ways that put borrowers at greater risk of over‐indebtedness. As a result, the microfinance industry is able to claim that it successfully helps to alleviate poverty, even as it accumulates profits by appropriating wealth from poor and low‐income households across the global South. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gutta percha, natural rubber, and balata are latexes produced by tropical trees that since the mid-nineteenth century have been extensively used commercially and in the creation of artworks and daily use objects. All three latexes are stereoisomers of polyisoprene that differ in their molecular structure. In gutta percha and balata, the molecular functional group is in the trans- position; in natural rubber, it is in the cis- position. This difference in their molecular structure affects the physical properties of these materials and their aging, turning natural rubber tacky and gutta percha brittle. Commercially focused analysis of natural polyisoprenes has typically used chemically modified materials. The present study characterizes natural, chemically unadulterated latex harvested from trees, aiming to differentiate the cis- and trans-forms. The analysed materials comprised fresh latexes harvested in Malaysia and Indonesia, naturally aged botanical samples, some over 100 years old, and minimally processed 10-year-old commercial stock; a total of 50 samples were examined, out of which 23 are discussed in detail. The harvesting practices of latexes were recorded during fieldwork in Southeast Asia in 2015–2019, in Cipetir (Tjipetir), on Lingga Island in Indonesia, and in Malay rubber plantations. The harvesting methods are the first indicators as to the type of latex harvested based on the pattern of incisions and time of coagulation upon exposure to air. The interviews of tappers, especially of gutta percha and balata, serve as a record of a disappearing craft. Therefore, this fieldwork report contributing to a general knowledge of working methods with natural latexes is of particular value considering the scarcity of published records. The laboratory analytical study of trans- and cis- forms relied on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, which is the most accurate method to unambiguously determine the stereo chemistry of each polyisoprene. The characteristic spectroscopic features of cis- and trans-positions were clearly shown in all samples, in fresh latex, in over 100-year-old material, and in early twentieth century artifacts. This result indicated that the aging of the polyisoprenes does not prevent the identification of their stereochemistry. This analytical work is the first thorough examination of gutta percha, natural rubber and balata in the context of cultural heritage to guide preservation strategies for objects made of these materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complexity of social indicators and their subjective and often qualitative nature render their inclusion into quantitative optimization models for network design and strategic decision‐making challenging. The social dimension is thus often implemented only rudimentarily, thwarting a holistic sustainability assessment and neglecting many of the social issues addressed in the sustainable development goals (SDGs). This work presents a structured process for including a comprehensive set of social aspects by selecting applicable quantitative and regionalized social indicators. This approach is applied to the case of second‐generation bioethanol production in the EU. Based on inter alia the Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products and Organizations, the Social Hotspots Database, state‐of‐the‐art literature, as well as previous work, we compile 9 social objective functions and 25 functions for social hotspot identification. They are evaluated alongside 1 economic and 21 environmental LCA‐based objective functions in a mixed‐integer linear programming (MILP) model. Key results show that social optimization either leads to large, labor‐intensive or regionally focused, indicator‐driven networks. Injuries and fatalities in the feedstock sectors of Central and Eastern European countries is the primary social hotspot. On the level of the overarching SDGs, SDG13 is most congruent with other goals, while SDG7 is hindered by pursuing other goals. This study's approach is novel in strategic network design and the European bioeconomy, and, by operationalizing the social dimension, enables a more holistic life cycle sustainability assessment and the consideration of the SDGs. This article met the requirements for a gold‐gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This text deals with student assistance in its relationship with the issue of democratizing access and permanence in higher and professional education for students from lower classes in federal educational institutions in Brazil and, in particular, at the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of the Piauí (IFPI). Thus, the objective is to examine the conditions of inclusion of poor students in a space historically marked by their exclusion. For this, research was used in documentary and bibliographic sources referring to higher, professional and student care education; among them, the following stand out: data from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) - Synthesis of Social Indicators, Budget Guidelines Laws and data from the socioeconomic questionnaire filled out by students at the time of entry into the IFPI courses. It appears that the democratization of higher and professional education provided by programs such as REUNI and the Quota Law resulted in an increase in students from poorer social segments. However, with the limitation of resources for the PNAES transferred to federal educational institutions, there was an increase in the degree of selectivity and focus of student assistance benefits for increasingly poor publics in the IFPI - Teresina Central Campus. Thus, the student assistance policy, while alleviating the financial difficulties of poor students served, does not effectively ensure the democratization of the conditions of access and permanence to the total number of students who need it, serving as an instrument for maintaining the conditions of social inequalities between they. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic crisis years are characterized by deteriorating macroeconomic indicators, economic and social problems, financial peril, and social disruption. During this time, governments largely but not always ignored the social problems caused by the economic crisis and instead focused solely on macroeconomic indicators. In times of crisis, however, the most vulnerable members of society bear the heaviest burden. This group faces a deteriorating environment because, throughout the crisis period, they cannot find work, must keep up with inflation, and live in a society where the income distribution worsens. Social expenditures are the financial instrument that governments can use to eliminate all of these deterioration and social negatives. For disadvantaged people who lose their income or become dependent on social assistance to live humanely, it is necessary to make social expenditures. Social expenditures, on the other hand, have an impact on the economy by influencing macroeconomic indicators. Therefore, this study examined the effects of social spending on Gross Domestic Product, inflation, and unemployment during periods of economic crisis. The study applied the "Fractional Frequency Fourier Autoregressive Distributed Lag Cointegration Test" to social expenditure, economic growth, unemployment, and inflation data from 1983 to 2021. According to the study's findings, social expenditures positively impacts economic growth and unemployment during times of crisis while negatively impacting inflation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is about studying social cohesion in functional urban areas (FUA). These territorial units become an important stakeholder and recipient of urban policy. Therefore, it is important to study problems of their development, including social cohesion. In the paper it is understood in spatial terms, i.e. it occurs when the differentiation of specific territorial units in terms of selected social indicators is reduced. In the research was studied the sigma convergence related to functional urban areas of vovodeship's capital cities in five least-developed regions of Poland (so-called the Eastern Poland). The aim of this article is to investigate whether social cohesion is increased in the FUA of the Eastern Poland. The obtained results showed that only in three FUA in the analyzed period was sigma convergence but it was very slow process. In two FUA, no sigma convergence was identified. At the same time, it was observed that in all the analyzed areas there was an improvement in the social situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our study focuses on the effect of agro‐based factors and human development indicators on the production of finger millet in eight states of India. Departing from the past studies, we employed the common and dynamic common correlated effects model, and our findings showed that the past year's finger millet production, productivity, area under finger millet production, rainfall and human development indicators positively influenced the finger millet production among the eight Indian states. The variable crop diversification has no impact on the production of finger millet. Overall result indicates the prominent role of human development assisting in the promotion of finger millet production. The empirical findings suggest corrective government policies in order to boost the overall production and consumption of finger millet at the macro level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we examine an approach for measuring the landscape performance of open and green areas in the southeast of Ankara, using social indicators based on spatial availability and accessibility, relative to the population size. This approach is applied specifically to neighbourhood parks. At the first stage, open and green spaces in the study area, which can be considered as neighbuorhood parks according to the size and social context, were determined. In the second stage, the presence (or absence) of open and green areas in the 94 neighbourhoods defined by administrative borders was revealed by associating these areas with population size and accessibility potential. As a result of the mappings and calculations using ArcGIS software, considering the population size of the neighbourhoods and the average standard size of the neighbourhood parks (9 decares per 1000 people), it is revealed that only 17.7% of the total spatial amount of open and green area required for neighbourhood parks was supplied in the study area. Considering the same population data and the access distance standard (400 m) for neighbourhood parks, 36.2% of the total number of neighbourhoods can offer access to open and green areas, for only 15.4% of their total population size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: The multi-purpose utilization of rangelands is a challenge that can alleviate grazing pressure, enhance rangeland well-being and empowerment, and preserve rangeland ecosystems. This research aimed to assess the suitability of mountain rangelands in the Marghevar region of Urmia for dualpurpose grazing and the exploitation of medicinal plants. Methodology: During the growing season of 2018-2019, vegetation data were collected in 60 plots of two square meters, spaced 10 meters apart along six 100-meter transects. Ecological indicators, including crown cover percentage, species density, forage production by grazed species, and medicinal plant organs used, were measured. Economic indicators, such as economic rent and expected value per hectare, were evaluated for both medicinal plants and forage. Social indicators, including marketability desirability and willingness to harvest medicinal plants, were extracted from questionnaire studies. Physical characteristics of the plant types (PTS) and soil erosion information from previous studies were also considered. Suitability classes (S1, S2, S3, N) for livestock grazing (sheep) and medicinal plant utilization were determined based on the total points of each indicator using the guidelines provided in the Manual of Suitability for Sheep Grazing (MSSG) and Manual of Suitability for Medicinal Plants (MSMP). The priority of dual-purpose use of rangelands was determined by comparing the merit classes of PTS for livestock grazing and medicinal plant utilization. Results: The results revealed that the crown cover percentage of medicinal plants in the composition of each PTS ranged from 5% to 40%. The share of medicinal plants in the habitat's plant composition ranged from 20% to 62%. The composition of medicinal plants and grazed species varied from 3% to 30%. Forage production by grazed species ranged from 65 to 850 kg/ha, while medicinal plant production ranged from 4 to 159 kg/ha during one growing season. The suitability assessment indicated that 77% of the rangeland area in the region had high suitability for dualpurpose use, 10.7% had moderate suitability, 0.9% had low suitability, and 3.3% were unsuitable based on ecological, environmental, economic, and social indicators. The presence and production capacity of medicinal plants were identified as limiting factors for the ability of PTS to exploit medicinal plants. Conclusion: Not all PTS are suitable for the utilization of medicinal plants, emphasizing the need for preserving genetic reserves. The policy regarding medicinal plants should consider this aspect and prioritize multi-purpose rangeland plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research presents the main results of the Virtual Service-Learning Project (ApSv), carried out by the 2016/16 Teaching Innovation Group of UNED, in collaboration with the General Directorate of Innovation and Social Strategy of the Madrid City Council, during the 2021-22 academic year. The objective of the Project is to obtain management inputs for Family Support Centers, based on the proposal of indicators for their evaluation, carried out by students of Public Management and Planning and Evaluation of Social Services at UNED. The article is divided into three sections. Firstly, the contributions of the literature on ApSv are reviewed. Secondly, the methodology for the development of the Project and its online evaluation is presented, with the main novelty of implementing a mixed quantitative-qualitative method, through questionnaires and Focus groups. Finally, the evaluation results are explained, testing the educational experience and the service that will impact the transfer of knowledge to society. The results allow us to conclude that the students' opinion coincides in both tools and that this mixed system can be used online with total effectiveness in the evaluation of ApS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the attention to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) people' rights from institutions, society and scientific bodies has clearly progressed. Although equal opportunities in employment are promoted within European countries and by the EU legislation, there are still evident discriminations in Europe. Many LGBTI people still face bullying and anti-LGBTI discrimination in the workplace and job market. Considerably more progress must be made before every LGBTI person feels accepted and comfortable for who they are in the workplace. Importantly, views on equal opportunities in employment are characterised by spatial heterogeneity at a sub-national level. Therefore, it is necessary to disaggregate estimates of relevant indicators, at least, at a regional level. This is crucial to identify the regions requiring more attention by policy makers. However, large-scale sample surveys are not designed to produce precise and accurate sub-national estimates. Small area estimation methods offer powerful tools in this context. Here, we produce regional estimates of three indicators measuring views of discrimination in employment of people from LGBTI communities in Europe. The analyses are based on the Eurobarometer 91.4 2019. Our empirical evidence shows that the estimates produced by small area estimation are reliable, giving important information to policy makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have proposed an impact assessment methodology for determining sustainability in energy-intensive industrial production based on a comprehensive combination of economic, environmental, and social indicators for sustainable development. The goal of this study was to disclose this methodology for assessing sustainability in energy-intensive industrial production. We proved that any energy-intensive chemical, metallurgical, and energy generation processes should maximize the material output values and product value addition to ensure innovative sustainable development. We proposed indicators that determine the levels of increasing the sustainability of energy-intensive production as a whole, as well as taking into account individual technological processes. We proposed a procedure for making managerial decisions to increase the sustainability of energy-intensive outputs using the technological renewal of fixed assets and/or technological modernization of production. Our proposed methodology is based on a graphical model of the technological development's life cycle of the existing energy-intensive production process. In addition, the proposed methodology ensures resource- and energy-efficiency intensification, together with the environmental safety of the technological processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzes sex ratio at birth in Spain from the late 19th century to the present. A detailed examination has been performed for the period between 1975 and 2019, considering over 20 million birth records. In addition to verifying the low reliability of the birth records during the early 20th century, we have also found that, in contrast to general beliefs, this ratio is not consistent. Our data suggest that parental age and race, birth order and intensity of solar radiation, all clearly influence this indicator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]