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Some biostimulant products provide proven benefits to plant production, potentially offering more environmentally friendly, sustainable, and natural inputs into production systems. However, the transference and predictability of known benefits between different growth environments, application protocols, and management systems are fraught with difficulty. In this study, we carried out carefully controlled glasshouse and in vitro assays with applications of humic acids, protein hydrolysates, and seaweed extract to compare the variability of biostimulant effects and dosage-dependent variations across diverse conditions, encompassing a sufficient range to comprehensively assess their full spectrum of impacts. The results demonstrated a clear trend of dosage-dependent effects with each biostimulant exhibiting a significant growth-promoting effect within a critical concentration range, but detrimental effects when the concentration fell outside this range. While substantial growth-promoting effects were observed under glasshouse conditions, biostimulant applications tended to be more sensitive and generally led to negative impacts in sterilised conditions. The combined use of biostimulants mostly resulted in detrimental and toxicological responses with only two combined treatments showing marginal synergistic effects. The findings demonstrated a complex interplay between biostimulants and the growth conditions of plants. Lack of knowledge of the indirect effects of different growth media may result in negative impacts of biostimulant applications and combinations of products outside narrow critical concentration ranges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

WUSCHEL-related homeobox (WOX) genes are plant-specific homeobox transcription factors and are known to play a key role during in vitro embryogenesis and organogenesis. To decipher the structural basis and genetic diversification of WOX family genes, this study performed a genome-wide analysis in Plantaginaceae. In the current study, Picrorhiza kurrooa and Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon; a model organism) of the Plantaginaceae family were used for in silico analysis of WOX gene family members. The physiochemical properties, subcellular localization, and phylogenetic analysis in P. kurrooa were evaluated. Further, to understand gene structure, chromosomal localization, and synteny, A. majus along with Arabidopsis thaliana was used due to unavailability of chromosome-level resolved genome in P. kurrooa. Five WOX and one WUS members were identified in the P. kurrooa genome while eight WOX and eight WUS members were identified in A. majus distributed in five clades. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that PkWOX and AmWOX showed greater similarity to each other, as do PkWUS and AmWUS, compared to AtWOX and AtWUS. Further, the tree was separated in three different clades, including ancient, intermediate, and WUS clade. Chromosomal localization of WOX and WUS genes in A. majus revealed their distribution between 2 and 7 chromosomes while chromosome 1 and 8 did not contain any member. Expression analysis of P. kurrooa WOX and WUS genes showed differential expression during the different stages of in vitro organogenesis (mother leaf, callus initiation, callus proliferation, and regeneration) and different temperature gradients (25°C, 15°C, and 10°C). Taken together, this study provided significant insight into the developmental and stress responsiveness of WOX gene family members in P. kurrooa, which can be further explored as promising candidates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: In the early 1900s, Erwin Baur established Antirrhinum majus as a model system, identifying and characterising numerous flower colour variants. This included Picturatum/Eluta, which restricts the accumulation of magenta anthocyanin pigments, forming bullseye markings on the flower face.We identified the gene underlying the Eluta locus by transposon‐tagging, using an Antirrhinum line that spontaneously lost the nonsuppressive el phenotype. A candidate MYB repressor gene at this locus contained a CACTA transposable element. We subsequently identified plants where this element excised, reverting to a suppressive Eluta phenotype. El alleles inhibit expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes, confirming it to be a regulatory locus. The modes of action of Eluta were investigated by generating stable transgenic tobacco lines, biolistic transformation of Antirrhinum petals and promoter activation/repression assays.Eluta competes with MYB activators for promoter cis‐elements, and also by titrating essential cofactors (bHLH proteins) to reduce transcription of target genes. Eluta restricts the pigmentation established by the R2R3‐MYB factors, Rosea and Venosa, with the greatest repression on those parts of the petals where Eluta is most highly expressed.Baur questioned the origin of heredity units determining flower colour variation in cultivated A. majus. Our findings support introgression from wild species into cultivated varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wearable devices are playing an important role in our daily lives. Nowadays, wearable devices have transformative implications for health, technology, connectivity, humancomputer interaction, and data analytics. Their importance lies in their ability to enhance various aspects of life and contribute to the ongoing evolution of digital landscapes. At the heart of smartwatch design, the processor takes center stage, driving the majority of advancements in smartwatch technology. This paper presents an experimental comparative study of ARM 64-bit processors, analyzing their performance and impact on power consumption, CPU usage, and battery temperature. We evaluate the characteristics of four smartwatch processors: Snapdragon W5+, Snapdragon Wear4100, Exynos W920, and Exynos W930. All of those smartwatches are equipped with ARM 64-bit processors. Our results indicate that none of the four selected smartwatches excelled in all aspects; each exhibits superiority over the others in specific features while being surpassed by others in different attributes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pesticide application is used in horticulture to reduce plant damage from organisms such as insects and mites. Systemic insecticides are highly efficacious and readily taken up by plant tissues. However, pesticide-treated plants may impose risks to nontarget insects or other organisms within ecosystems. In this study, insecticide residues in nectar, leaves, and flower petals of the horticulturally significant herbaceous annual snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus (Lamiales: Plantaginaceae), were assessed at two locations over several weeks following foliar and drench treatment with five systemic insecticides. Concentrations of the insecticides were determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The independent effects Application Method, Application Rate, and Time were statistically significant among all active ingredients in the three matrices in both sites in California (CA) and New Jersey (NJ). The interaction effects were also generally statistically significant in the CA site but less consistently so in the NJ site, dependent on the active ingredient and matrix. Post hoc analyses found the highest residue concentrations in leaves and the lowest in nectar, a trend generally consistent over time regardless of active ingredient for both the CA and NJ sites. The results of this study are discussed in the context of conserving pollinators and other beneficial insects. It is recommended that similar studies should be implemented in different geographical regions and climates, along with multiyear studies for perennial ornamental plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing environmental and economic concerns necessitate the research for peat moss alternatives, aiming to balance ecological sustainability with cost-effectiveness. This study assessed whether biochar (BC) and hydrafiber (HF) could be a partial replacement for peat moss as substrate components. Twelve substrates were formulated by either mixing BC (20%, 40%, and 60%, by vol.) with HF (20%, 40%, and 60%, by vol.), with the remaining being peat moss or mixing BC (0%, 20%, 40%, and 60%, by vol.) with the commercial substrates (CS) to grow zinnia (Zinnia elegans) and snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus) plants in containers. The physical properties of the substrates, including container capacity, total porosity, air space, bulk density, and chemical properties including leachate pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured. Plant growth parameters including growth index (GI) and leaf greenness (indicated with SPAD), biomass, and number of flowers were measured biweekly. The results showed all the substrate mixes had similar air space, bulk density, and SPAD. Treatment with 20% BC and 80% CS yielded the highest GI, biomass, and numbers of flowers in both zinnia and snapdragon. In conclusion, BC could be used to partially (20%) replace commercial substrate mix for container-grown zinnia and snapdragon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Low temperature (LT) and weak light (WL) seriously affects the yield and quality of snapdragon in winter greenhouse. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) exert positive role in regulating growth and enhancing abiotic stress tolerance in plants. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms by AMF improve the LT combined with WL (LTWL) tolerance in snapdragon remain mostly unknown. Methods: We compared the differences in root configuration, osmoregulatory substances, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant enzyme defense systems and transcriptome between AMF-inoculated and control groups under LT, WL, low light, and LTWL conditions. Results: Our analysis showed that inoculation with AMF effectively alleviated the inhibition caused by LTWL stress on snapdragon root development, and significantly enhanced the contents of soluble sugars, soluble proteins, proline, thereby maintaining the osmotic adjustment of snapdragon. In addition, AMF alleviated reactive oxygen species damage by elevating the contents of AsA, and GSH, and the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), and glutathione reductase (GR). RNA-seq analysis revealed that AMF regulated the expression of genes related to photosynthesis (photosystem I related proteins, photosystem II related proteins, chlorophyll a/b binding protein), active oxygen metabolism (POD, Fe-SOD, and iron/ascorbate family oxidoreductase), plant hormone synthesis (ARF5 and ARF16) and stress-related transcription factors gene (bHLH112, WRKY72, MYB86, WRKY53, WRKY6, and WRKY26) under LTWL stress. Discussion: We concluded that mycorrhizal snapdragon promotes root development and LTWL tolerance by accumulation of osmoregulatory substances, activation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense systems, and induction expression of transcription factor genes and auxin synthesis related genes. This study provides a theoretical basis for AMF in promoting the production of greenhouse plants in winter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Great attention to plant research is required to enhance growth performance and yield of small potted plants. Various growing media increased plant productivity while use of soil is going to be limited because of low fertility and numerous soil-borne diseases. Present pot experiment aimed to evaluate the performance of morpho-physiological and biochemical attributes in snapdragon cultivated under cocopeat (CP), pumice (P), leaf mold (LM) and their combination with silt (S), whereas silt alone was considered as control treatment. The results showed that LM and its combination with silt improved plant morphological attributes such as plant height (12%), leaf area (37.4%), spike length (54.9%), stem diameter (39.2%), number of florets spike - 1 (38.6%), whereas, plant fresh weight, plant dry weight and soluble protein contents was improved by 24.1%, 17.7% and 59.2%, respectively, compared with control. Antioxidative enzyme activities such as POX and SOD, total phenolic capacity, antioxidant capacity, relative chlorophyll content and linear electron flow was enhanced by 27.2%, 296%, 47.1%, 64.9%, 27.4%, and 136.7%, respectively, in treatment containing combination of all growing media with equal ratio compared with control. Whereas quantum yield of photosystem-II, non-photochemical quenching and efficiency of photosystem-II was enhanced by 11.8%, 39.7%, and 7.9%, respectively, under combine CP+S growing media. This study opined that the application of LM and CP are great sources of macronutrients. Therefore, exploitation of these growing media and their combination with soil proves more operative cultivation media for producing high quality snapdragon while encouraging sustainable floricultural practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The v-MYB avivan myoblastsis virus oncogene homolog (MYB) family is the largest gene family of the transcription factor in plants, involved in plant growth and development, secondary metabolism and resistance to biotic/abiotic stress. Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon) is an ideal material for studying ornamental traits. Nevertheless, there has been no systematic investigation into the AmMYB family of snapdragons. In this study, we identified a total of 162 members of the AmMYB gene family in snapdragons. Gene structure analysis showed that the AmMYB family within the same subgroup had a similar structure and motifs. Analysis of gene duplication events revealed that the amplification of the AmMYB family was driven by whole-genome duplication (WGD) and dispersed duplication. The analysis of cis-acting elements in the promoter region of AmMYB genes reveals a collaborative involvement of light-responsive growth and development elements, stress resistance elements, and hormone-responsive elements jointly participating in the regulation of the AmMYB gene. Collinearity analysis demonstrates significant functional distinctions between AmMYB and monocotyledonous plants. The classification of AmMYB members results in 3 main subgroups with 36 smaller subgroups. All AmMYB genes are distributed across all eight chromosomes, with no apparent correlation between subfamily distribution and chromosome length. Through phylogenetic analysis and RNA-seq analysis, we have identified 9 R2R3-MYB genes that potentially play a role in the regulation of floral volatile organic compounds (FVOCs) biosynthesis. Their expression patterns were verified by qRT-PCR experiments. This study establishes a robust foundation for further investigations into the functionality of AmMYB genes and their molecular mechanisms underlying FVOC biosynthesis in snapdragons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus L.), a garden plant cherished for its unique and colorful flowers, is widely used in bouquets and wreaths as a cut flower. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of nitrogen sources (ammonium sulfate, AS; ammonium nitrate, AN; and urea) and humic acids from lignite sources (TKI-Humas and HUM-Zn) on the growth and flower production of snapdragon that are grown in pots under controlled conditions. It has been observed that plants started to flower during applications of HUM-Zn with AN and urea, whereas they remained at the vegetative stage during the application of HUM-Zn with AS. Furthermore, it has been determined that the two humic acid sources with AS usage prolonged the vegetative development and did not induce flowering of plants. Simultaneous application of humic acid and nitrogen sources has caused an increase in the leaf width, peduncle diameter, floret weight, chlorophyll content, and biomass of the snapdragon. Results show that the application of HUM-Zn with AN and urea has been effective on the plant's vegetative organs, flowering, and dry weight. It indicated that HUM-Zn contains zinc, which is effective in flowering and biomass development. In conclusion, it was concluded that the simultaneous application of humic acid with AN or urea rapidly affected the flowering process of snapdragon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antirrhinum majus L. has many applications in genetic studies and the medicinal and ornamental plant industries. However, its seeds have a low germination percentage and speed, and the growth of its seedlings is weak, which has caused many problems for researchers and flower growers. Plant germination, development, and flowering are affected by light quality. Recently, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have been used for multiple purposes in plant production. Accordingly, the influence of light quality on the germination and growth of snapdragons was assessed in this study. Hence, different light treatments included natural daylight (C), white LED (W), blue LED (B), red LED (R), and a mix of 50% blue and 50% red (BR). Germination indices were investigated for up to 21 days. Morphological and biochemical indices were analyzed in seven-day and 30-day-old seedlings, respectively. According to the results, the positive effects of BR treatment were evident in all germination indices, particularly in the germination speed. Morphological indices such as fresh weight, dry weight, shoot height, and root length were the highest in R and BR. Also, growth indices such as the contents of photosynthesis pigments, total soluble carbohydrates, total soluble protein, and total phenolic increased remarkably under the BR treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To evaluate the effect of aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) additions on several growth variables of R. asiaticus in a greenhouse under a typically dry environment of the Mexicali valley. Design/methodology/approach: The variables determined were, bud opening rate, flower diameter, height of stem and bud growing rate and completely randomized block experimental design under a 2 by 4 factorial arrangement and three replicates was used for setting up the treatments with rates AVG of 0,100,150 and 200 mg L-1 over La Belle Deep Rose (DER) and La Belle Dark Orange (DAR) R. asiaticus cultivars. Results: The optimal dose of AVG for reducing flower bud diameter on both cultivars were those of 200 and 100 mg L-1 respectively. Also, AVG addition had a significant effect in reducing stem height and growing rate for both cultivars. Limitations on study/implications: The use of AVG has shown good results as inhibitor of ethylene synthesis and extension of shelf life in carnations, snap dragons (Antirrhinum), ripening of fruits, and to reduce abortion of female flowers in certain species of walnuts, so, based on the above and considering the lack of information regarding the use of AVG inhibitor in the opening of Persian Buttercup flower buds was used AVG in R. asiaticus. Findings/conclusions: AVG addition on plants of R. asiaticus had a significant effect reducing growth, both in diameter and height in the La Belle Deep Rose (DER) and La Belle Dark Orange (DAR) varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A role of ecological adaptation in speciation can be obscured by stochastic processes and differences that species accumulate after genetic isolation. One way to identify adaptive characters and their underlying genes is to study cases of speciation involving parallel adaptations. Recently resolved phylogenies reveal that alpine morphology has evolved in parallel in the genus Antirrhinum (snapdragons): first in an early split of an alpine from a lowland lineage and, more recently, from within the lowland lineage to produce closely related sympatric species with contrasting alpine and lowland forms. Here, we find that two of these later diverged sympatric species are differentiated by only around 2% of nuclear loci. Though showing evidence of recent gene flow, the species remain distinct for a suite of morphological characters typical of earlier‐diverged alpine or lowland lineages and their morphologies correlate with features of the local landscape, as expected of ecological adaptations. Morphological differences between the two species involve multiple, unlinked genes so that parental character combinations are readily broken up by recombination in hybrids. We detect little evidence for post‐pollination barriers to gene flow or recombination, suggesting that genetic isolation related to ecological adaptation is important in maintaining character combinations and might have contributed to parallel speciation. We also find evidence that genes involved in the earlier alpine‐lowland split were reused in parallel evolution of alpine species, consistent with introgressive hybridisation, and speculate that many non‐ecological barriers to gene flow might have been purged during the process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nectar spurs (tubular outgrowths of floral organs) have long fascinated biologists. However, given that no model species possess nectar spurs, there is still much to learn about their development. In this study we combined morphological analysis with comparative transcriptomics to gain a global insight into the morphological andmolecular basis of spur outgrowth in Linaria. Whole transcriptome sequencing was performed on two related species at three key developmental stages (identified by our morphological analysis), one with a spur (Linaria vulgaris), and one without a spur (Antirrhinum majus). A list of spur-specific genes was selected, on which we performed a gene enrichment analysis. Results from our RNA-seq analysis agreed with our morphological observations. We describe gene activity during spur development and provide a catalogue of spur-specific genes. Our list of spur-specific genes was enriched for genes connected to the plant hormones cytokinin, auxin and gibberellin. We present a global view of the genes involved in spur development in L. vulgaris, and define a suite of genes which are specific to spur development. This work provides candidate genes for spur outgrowth and development in L. vulgaris which can be investigated in future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Not all frameworks used in machine learning and deep learning integrate with Android, which requires some prerequisites. The primary objective of this paper is to present the results of the analysis and a comparison of deep learning development frameworks, which can be adapted into fully decentralized Android apps from a cloud server. As a work methodology, we develop and/or modify the test applications that these frameworks offer us a priori in such a way that it allows an equitable comparison of the analysed characteristics of interest. These parameters are related to attributes that a user would consider, such as (1) percentage of success; (2) battery consumption; and (3) power consumption of the processor. After analysing numerical results, the proposed framework that best behaves in relation to the analysed characteristics for the development of an Android application is TensorFlow, which obtained the best score against Caffe2 and Snapdragon NPE in the percentage of correct answers, battery consumption, and device CPU power consumption. Data consumption was not considered because we focus on decentralized cloud storage applications in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improved predictability of the effectiveness of biostimulant products is required before their wider acceptance by ornamental plant growers. We investigated the effects of three of the main groups of biostimulants (humic acids, protein hydrolysates, and seaweed extracts) under six fertilization levels, using Antirrhinum majus L. as a model ornamental plant to evaluate potential interactive effects on plant performance and growth substrate biological activity. Number of leaves increased in response to biostimulant application, but leaf area was generally reduced, especially in potting mix with lower fertility. Seaweed extract had beneficial effects on both shoot and root dry mass accumulation but was less beneficial than higher fertilizer rates. The beneficial effects of protein hydrolysates and humic acids were marginal and less predictable under our experimental conditions; humic acids showed particularly negative effects on root dry mass accumulation. All biostimulants showed negative impacts on substrate microbial activity, although Dehydrogenase Activity (DHA) was substantially higher under lower fertility. Extrapolation of the results of this study suggests that it is feasible to apply biostimulants, particularly seaweed extracts, to improve the overall growth performance of ornamental plants. However, it is essential to consider the nutrient status of growth medium if we are to leverage the biostimulant paradigm in the ornamental plant sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recycling of organic waste as a feedstock for the plant use emerges to be an eco-friendly process for the production of various fruit, vegetable, and ornamental crops. Cheese-whey has very short shelflife, therefore, in the present study the wasted cheese-whey is used as organic material to observe its effect on ornamental plant. In this study, seven commercial cultivars of snapdragon (Magic Carpet, Antiquity Sunset, Day and Night, Chuckles, Illumination, Madame Butterfly, and Twilight) were planted in pots containing either (1) 1:3:1 ratio of sand, peat-based compost, and perlite substrate (control), or (2) 1:3:1 ratio of sand, peat-based compost, and perlite substrate, which was amended by adding 200 mL per pot cheese-whey. These pots were placed in a glasshouse, under ambient environment. The layout of the experiment was two-factorial completely randomized design with six replicates. All plant growth and flowering parameters were significantly (P≤0.05) affected by substrates. Snapdragon cultivars grown in cheese-whey amended substrate displayed maximum plant height, number of leaf per plant, leaf area, leaf fresh weight, leaf dry weight, plant fresh weight, plant dry weight, specific leaf weight, and leaf area ratio. Comparing the cultivars, it was observed that the cultivar Day and Night had maximum days to flowering, plant height, number of leaf per plant, leaf area, leaf fresh weight, leaf dry weight, plant fresh weight, plant dry weight, specific leaf weight, and leaf area ratio. The interaction of the both factors indicated that all snapdragon cultivars had significantly promising results when grown in cheese-whey amended substrate compared to control plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Antirrhinum has been used as a model to study self-incompatibility extensively. The multi-allelic S -locus, carrying a pistil S-RNase and dozens of S -locus F-box (SLF) genes, underlies the genetic control of self-incompatibility (SI) in Antirrhinum hispanicum. However, there have been limited studies on the genomic organization of the S -locus supergene due to a lack of high-quality genomic data. Here, we present the chromosome-level reference and haplotype-resolved genome assemblies of a self-incompatible A. hispanicum line, AhS7S8. For the first time, 2 complete A. hispanicum S -haplotypes spanning ∼1.2 Mb and containing a total of 32 SLFs were reconstructed, whereas most of the SLFs derived from retroelement-mediated proximal or tandem duplication ∼122 Mya. Back then, the S -RNase gene and incipient SLFs came into linkage to form the pro-type of type-1 S -locus in the common ancestor of eudicots. Furthermore, we detected a pleiotropic cis -transcription factor (TF) associated with regulating the expression of SLF s, and two miRNAs may control the expression of this TF. Interspecific S -locus and intraspecific S -haplotype comparisons revealed the dynamic nature and polymorphism of the S -locus supergene mediated by continuous gene duplication, segmental translocation or loss, and TE-mediated transposition events. Our data provide an excellent resource for future research on the evolutionary studies of the S-RNase -based self-incompatibility system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Short term experiments have identified heat shock and cold response elements in many biological systems. However, the effect of long-term low or high temperatures is not well documented. To address this gap, we grew Antirrhinum majus plants from two-weeks old until maturity under control (normal) (22/16°C), cold (15/5°C), and hot (30/23°C) conditions for a period of two years. Flower size, petal anthocyanin content and pollen viability obtained higher values in cold conditions, decreasing in middle and high temperatures. Leaf chlorophyll content was higher in cold conditions and stable in control and hot temperatures, while pedicel length increased under hot conditions. The control conditions were optimal for scent emission and seed production. Scent complexity was low in cold temperatures. The transcriptomic analysis of mature flowers, followed by gene enrichment analysis and CNET plot visualization, showed two groups of genes. One group comprised genes controlling the affected traits, and a second group appeared as long-term adaptation to non-optimal temperatures. These included hypoxia, unsaturated fatty acid metabolism, ribosomal proteins, carboxylic acid, sugar and organic ion transport, or protein folding. We found a differential expression of floral organ identity functions, supporting the flower size data. Pollinator-related traits such as scent and color followed opposite trends, indicating an equilibrium for rendering the organs for pollination attractive under changing climate conditions. Prolonged heat or cold cause structural adaptations in protein synthesis and folding, membrane composition, and transport. Thus, adaptations to cope with non-optimal temperatures occur in basic cellular processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the fifth issue of the series of germination reports from Mediterranean areas (sensu Med- Checklist). It comprises germination protocols for 18 taxa: Hieracium and Pilosella from South Italy by Di Gristina & al. (Nos. 103-106); Genista from Sardinia by Deplano & al. (No. 107); Antirrhinum, Anthyllis, Digitalis, Echium, Jasione, Nothoscordum, Silene and Verbascum by Martínez-Oliver & al. (Nos. 108-116); Dianthus, Helichrysum and Silene from Sicily by Scafidi & Salmeri (Nos. 117-120). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 1991 review paper by Coen andMeyerowitz on the control of floral organ development set out the evidence available at that time, which led to the now famous ABCmodel of floral organ identity control. The authors summarised the genetic and molecular analyses that had been carried out in a relatively short time by several laboratories, mainly in Arabidopsis thaliana and Antirrhinummajus.Theworkwas a successful example of howsystematic genetic andmolecular analysis can decipher themechanismthat controls a developmental process in plants.The ABC model is a combinatorialmodel inwhicheachfloral whorl acquires its identity throughaunique combination of floral homeotic gene activities.The review also highlights the similarities in the regulation of floral organ identity between evolutionarily distant plant species, emphasising the general relevance of the model and paving the way for comprehensive studies of the evolution of floral diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-temperature and weak-light conditions have major effects on the growth and flower quality of horticultural plants. A greenhouse pot experiment was performed to investigate the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) (Funneliformis mosseae and Glomus versiforme) on the growth, photosynthesis, and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus L.) under low-temperature and weaklight stress. The growth and biomass of snapdragon were higher following inoculation with F. mosseae and G. versiforme compared with control plants. The percentage of mycorrhizal colonization and root activity were high in A. majus plants with AMF. AMF inoculation enhanced the net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and water use efficiency of plants under low-temperature and weak-light conditions. Furthermore, the chlorophyll content, potential activity of photosystem II (PSII), effective photochemistry quantum efficiency of PSII, actual photochemical quantum efficiency of PSII, and photochemical quenching coefficient were higher in AMF-inoculated plants than in uninoculated plants. The application of AMF reduced the intercellular CO2 concentration and non-photochemical quenching coefficient. Thus, snapdragon plants treated with F. mosseae and G. versiforme are more resistant to low-temperature and weak-light stress than untreated plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This work has been performed for the initiation shoots from nodes of Antirrhinum majus cultured on the MS medium supplemented various concentration values of the BA, Kin after 4 weeks and multiplication shoots after 8 weeks; BA and Kin have been utilized for the in vitro shoot re-generation and IBA have been utilized for in vitro root re-generation. Also, the results are shown as follows: (10.2) shoots/explant with the highest shoot length (8.4) cm and an average number of leaves (9.0) leaf/shoot were obtained from cultured nodes on MS medium that has been supplemented with (0.75mg/l) BA 8 weeks later. (3.9) shoots / explant with the highest shoot length (2.6) cm and an average number of leaves (9.4) leaf/shoot were obtained from cultured nodes on MS medium that has been supplemented with (2.0 mg/l) Kin 8 weeks later. The highest rooting (100)% has been obtained from the cultured shoots that are produced in vitro on 1/2 MS medium that has been supplemented by (0.4 mg/l) IBA, with the maximum root length (12) cm and an average number of roots ( 8.2) root/plantlet. The highest rooting (80)% has been obtained from the cultured shoots that are produced in vitro on MS medium that has been supplemented by (0.6 mg/l) IBA, with the maximum root length (10) cm and an average number of roots (8.8) root/plantlet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The latest study focused on snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus L.) plants during the fall season of 2021-2022 in a greenhouse at the Agricultural Division, University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq. The study aimed to determine the response of snapdragon plants to foliar application of arginine (0, 20, 40, and 60 mg L-1) and nano-iron (0, 30, 60, and 90 mg L-1). The experiment comprised a randomized complete block design with a factorial arrangement and three replications. The arginine (60 mg L-1) foliar spray led to a significant enhancement in the flower and physiological traits, i.e., flower carrier length (19.62 cm), age of the flowering inflorescence (25.01 days), leaf content of carbohydrates (12.75 mg g.-1) and iron (48.93 mg kg-1), and flower content for anthocyanin dye (21.40 mg 100 g-1) compared with the lowest values of the control treatment viz., 13.88 cm, 16.70 days, 11.25 mg g-1, 15.22 mg kg-1, and 9.82 mg 100 g-1, respectively. The nano-iron (90 mg L-1) also significantly improved the flower and physiological traits, i.e., the flower carrier length (18.06 cm), age of the flowering inflorescence (22.75 days), leaf content for carbohydrates (12.16 mg g-1); iron (38.08 mg kg-1), and flower content for anthocyanin dye (16.72 mg 100 g-1) compared with the control, i.e., 15.79 cm, 20.02 days, 11.71 mg g-1, 29.61 mg kg-1, and 13.05 mg 100 g-1, respectively. The interaction of arginine (60 mg L-1) and nano-iron (90 mg L-1) provided a positive effect of their individual application for flower and physiological traits (22.55 cm, 27.93 days, 12.93 mg g-1, 50.04 mg kg-1, and 23.06 mg100 g-1) compared with the control (12.84 cm, 15.43 days, 10.84 mg g-1, 13.0 mg kg-1, and5.13 mg 100 g-1), respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transposon Tam3 of Antirrhinum (snapdragon) has acquired properties that distinguish it from other transposons. Mobile DNA, commonly referred to as a transposable element or transposon, is considered to be synonymous with a selfish factor. That is, a transposable element increases in copy number and moves copies of itself independently of the survival of the host organism. Therefore, the host collectively regulates the transposition activities of most transposable elements in its genome by epigenetic means. However, our analyses of the structure and behavior of Tam3, as shown by the following five results, provide evidence that it does not behave in a selfish manner in relation to the host. 1) Active transposable elements normally increase the abundance of their non-autonomous elements, whereas Tam3 is known to have no non-autonomous elements, and a limited number of around 10 copies of autonomous elements present in the genome have been isolated as active copies. 2) Tam3 does not transpose at 25 °C, which is the optimal growth temperature for Antirrhinum. Transposition of Tam3 occurs only at low temperatures of about 15 °C, which is stressful for Antirrhinum. 3) Few strains of Antirrhinum have been found to contain genes that specifically suppress Tam3 transposition. 4) Most of the Tam3 insertions found in Antirrhinum genes do not affect the host genome, and the expression of these host genes is not completely suppressed. 5) Transcription and translation of the Tam3 transposase gene are not epigenetically regulated by the host. These five experimental results constitute evidence that Tam3 retains features that are dissimilar to those of many other transposons and that it does not behave in a selfish manner that is detrimental to the survival of the host. In this review, we consider what kinds of behavior are required if transposons are to establish a mutually beneficial relationship with their hosts, with reference to Tam3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Floral terpenoid volatiles are impacted by light quality. In snapdragon, blue light can significantly enhance the emissions of ocimene and myrcene and the expression of ocimene synthase (AmOCS) and myrcene synthase (AmMYS). However, the mechanisms underlying the response to blue light are largely unknown. In this study, two transcription factors (TFs), AmMYB24 and AmMYB63 were screened which showed high expression level under blue light. AmMYB24 exhibited synchronous expression with AmOCS. Moreover, AmOCS transcript expression was up-regulated in response to AmMYB24 overexpression. This activation is direct and occurs through binding of AmMYB24 to MYBCORECYCATB1 sites in the AmOCS promoter. In addition, AmMYB24 interacts with the blue light signal key receptor AmCRY1 and the transcriptional activation activity of AmMYB24 was decreased in AmCRY1 silencing flowers. Taken together, our results revealed the regulatory pathway of biosynthesis of ocimene induced by blue light mediated by AmMYB24 and AmCRY1. When snapdragon flowers were exposed to blue light, AmCRY1 was first activated, the light signal is transduced to AmMYB24 through interaction with AmCRY1, and finally AmMYB24 activates AmOCS by binding to its MYBCOREATCYCB1 motif, resulting in abundant ocimene emission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an effort to induce genetic variations and identify commercially useful variants of snapdragon, seeds of a proprietary snapdragon line OAK564 were treated with different levels (0, 0.10, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0%) of ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) for three time durations (8, 10, and 12 h). Significant differences were observed for seed germination at 0.25% and 1% EMS, as well as for 0.25% EMS × 8 h and 1% EMS × 12 h treatment combinations. Although there were no significant differences among all EMS treatments and time durations for plant survival, significant differences were observed among EMS treatments and time durations for pollen viability. Based on these findings, a large-scale mutagenesis experiment was conducted using 2000 seeds of line OAK564 treated with either 0.50, 0.75, or 1.0% EMS for 10 h. Germinating seedlings (M1) were evaluated for various phenotypic traits. Several useful alterations in all three M1 populations were observed for plant architecture (dwarfing, multiple branching, and secondary branching), plant color (chlorophyll chimeras, yellowish-green tissues, and dark green tissues), leaf morphology (small leaf size, leaf curling, wavy leaf margins, and thickened striations), and floral morphology (rolled petals, elongated petals, and curtailed petals). Thus, EMS treatments induced various mutations for various phenotypic traits, thereby increasing the genetic diversity in these M1 snapdragon populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]