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Background: Individuals may use unhealthy coping mechanisms such as alcohol, tobacco, and unhealthy snack consumption. The purpose of this study was to assess how neighborhood disadvantage is associated with sales of alcohol, tobacco, and unhealthy snacks at stores of a discount variety store chain.Methods: Alcohol, tobacco, and unhealthy snack sales were measured monthly for 20 months, 2017-2018, in 16 discount variety stores in the United States. Mixed effects linear regressions adjusted for population size, with store-specific random effects, to examine the relationship of weekly unit sales with three outcome variables and neighborhood disadvantage, measured using the Area Deprivation Index (ADI).Results: The discount variety stores were located in neighborhoods where the median ADI percentile was 87 [interquartile range 83,89], compared to the median ADI percentile of 50 for all US communities, indicating that the stores were located in substantially disadvantaged neighborhoods. For every 1% increase in ADI, weekly unit sales of unhealthy snack food increased by 43 [95% confidence interval, CI 28-57], and weekly unit sales of tobacco products increased by 11.5 [95% CI 5-18] per store. No significant relationship between neighborhood disadvantage and the weekly unit sales of alcohol products was identified.Conclusions: The positive relationship between neighborhood disadvantage and the sale of tobacco and snack foods may help explain the pathway between neighborhood disadvantage and poor health outcomes. It would be useful for future research to examine how neighborhood disadvantage influences resident health-related behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Environmental cues shape behaviour, but few studies compare the impact of targeting healthier vs. less-healthy cues. One online study suggested greater impact on selection from increasing the number of less-healthy (vs. healthier) snacks. The current study aimed to: (1) extend the previous study by using physically-present snacks for immediate consumption; (2) explore responsiveness by socio-economic position; (3) investigate possible mediators (response inhibition, food appeal) of any socio-economic differences in selection.Methods: In a between-subjects laboratory experiment UK adults (n = 417) were randomised according to their ID number (without blinding) to one of three ranges of options: Two healthier, two less-healthy ["Equal"] (n = 136); Six healthier, two less-healthy ["Increased Healthier"] (n = 143); Two healthier, six less-healthy ["Increased Less-Healthy"] (n = 138). Participants completed measures of response inhibition and food appeal, and selected a snack for immediate consumption from their allocated range. The primary outcome was selection of a healthier (over less-healthy) snack.Results: The odds of selecting a less-healthy snack were 2.9 times higher (95%CIs:1.7,5.1) in the Increased Less-Healthy condition compared to the Equal condition. The odds of selecting a healthier snack were 2.5 times higher (95%CIs:1.5,4.1) in the Increased Healthier (vs. Equal) condition. There was no significant difference in the size of these effects (- 0.2; 95%CIs:-1.1,0.7). Findings were inconclusive with regard to interactions by education, but the direction of effects was consistent with potentially larger impact of the Increased Healthier condition on selection for higher-educated participants, and potentially larger impact of the Increased Less-Healthy condition for less-educated participants.Conclusions: A greater impact from increasing the number of less-healthy (over healthier) foods was not replicated when selecting snacks for immediate consumption: both increased selections of the targeted foods with no evidence of a difference in effectiveness. The observed pattern of results suggested possible differential impact by education, albeit not statistically significant. If replicated in larger studies, this could suggest that removing less-healthy options has the potential to reduce health inequalities due to unhealthier diets. Conversely, adding healthier options could have the potential to increase these inequalities.Trial Registration: ISRCTN: ISRCTN34626166 ; 11/06/2018; Retrospectively registered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Many young people form unhealthy behavioural habits, such as low intake of fruit and vegetables, high intake of energy-dense snack foods, and excessive sedentary screen-based behaviours. However, there is a shortage of parent-and home-focused interventions to change multiple health behaviours in children.Methods: Kids FIRST was a 12-week, home- and school-based pilot randomised controlled trial to reduce screen-time and unhealthy snacking with assessments at pre- (baseline) and post-intervention. Four UK schools were randomised to control or one of three interventions targeting reductions in (1) screen-time and unhealthy snacking (ST + Sn), (2) screen-time (ST only), (3) unhealthy snacking (Sn only), and parents with children aged 9-11 years were recruited via schools. Intervention group parents received four online 'sessions' and four packages of resources tailored to each group. Children received four 30-min lessons during school time. Children and parents reported their own screen-time behaviours, children reported their own snacking behaviours. Descriptive analyses were undertaken using principles of intention to treat.Results: Initial feasibility was shown in that this study successfully recruited schools and families into all four study arms and retained them over a period of 13 weeks (retention rate ≥ 74%). Seventy-five children and 64 parents provided full baseline questionnaire data. Reductions in children's school day and weekend day TV/DVD viewing and computer game use were found in the ST + Sn and ST groups, while self-reported smartphone use increased in these groups. Similar results were found for parents' TV/DVD, computer and smartphone use in these groups. Little to no changes were found in reports of the dietary variables assessed in any intervention group for children or parents.Conclusions: These preliminary findings show some promise for the Kids FIRST intervention. Based on these findings, a future full trial should recruit a more diverse sample of families and optimise the intervention and intervention resources to more fully engage parents with the dietary-based components of the intervention programme, where fewer changes were seen. Although most parents reporting receiving the intervention resources, further development work is required to achieve higher levels of engagement. This might include greater parent and child engagement work early in the development of the project.Trial Registration: Retrospectively registered in June 21st 2019 with ClinicalTrials.gov (number NCT03993652). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Expanded partnership with the medical community is a promising strategy for reducing disparities in dental caries among young children. However, no validated caries risk instrument exists for use in primary health care settings. To help resolve this gap, a 52-item caries risk questionnaire was developed and targeted to primary caregivers (PCGs) to test in a 3-y prospective study. To begin to understand the validity of the questionnaire items, the purpose of this study was to compare responses to the questionnaire based on key demographic characteristics known to be associated with disparities in caries experience (e.g., race/ethnicity and insurance status). A total of 1,323 one-year-old children were recruited primarily through 3 medical research networks. Baseline questionnaire responses were analyzed via logistic regression. The sample was 49% female. Its racial/ethnic makeup was as follows: 13% Hispanic, 37% White, 37% Black, and 13% other or multiracial. Sixty-one percent were enrolled in Medicaid, and 95% resided in urban communities. Mothers represented 94% of PCGs. There were significant differences ( P < 0.05) in baseline responses based on Medicaid status and race/ethnicity. As compared with those not enrolled in Medicaid, children in the Medicaid group were significantly more likely (after adjusting for race/ethnicity) to 1) go to sleep while nursing or drinking something other than water, 2) eat sugary snacks between meals, 3) consume sugary drinks between meals, 4) receive topical fluoride from a health professional, 5) visit the dentist, and 6) not have an employed adult in the household. PCGs of children enrolled in Medicaid were significantly more likely to be the mother, have bleeding gums, eat sugary snacks between meals, consume sugary drinks between meals, eat or drink something other than water before going to bed, and not get regular dental checkups. In conclusion, there are significant differences in caries risk questionnaire responses based on Medicaid status and race/ethnicity that provide construct and criterion validity to the developed caries risk tool (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01707797). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In our food-rich environment we must constantly resist appealing food in order to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Previous studies have found that food-specific inhibition training can produce changes in eating behaviour, such as a reduction in snack consumption. However, the mechanisms that drive the effect of inhibition training on eating behaviour remain unknown. Identifying the mechanism underlying food-specific inhibition training could lead to more targeted training interventions increasing the potential efficacy of such interventions. In the current study, we investigated directly whether training-induced effects on inhibitory control might underlie the predicted change in eating behaviour. Healthy individuals who scored high on uncontrolled eating were randomly assigned to receive six online training sessions over six consecutive days of either food-specific response inhibition training (active group; n = 21) or response inhibition training without food stimuli (control group; n = 20). We measured pre- and post-training inhibitory control in the context of food and food cue sensitivity, as well as food consumption in a bogus taste test. As expected, food-specific inhibition training decreased snack consumption in the bogus taste test relative to control training. However, the active training did not improve inhibitory control towards food, nor did it reduce food cue sensitivity above and beyond the control training. Future studies are needed to investigate the potential underlying mechanism of food-specific inhibition training, as it remains unclear what drives the reliable effect on eating behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Malnutrition in children is a current global burden. A common snack for children is biscuits prepared from cereals. However, these types of biscuits have low protein content. Therefore, producing healthier biscuits enriched with essential amino acids (EAAs) and other micronutrients is of great interest to researchers and manufacturers. In this study, biscuits produced from low gluten wheat flour fortified with sturgeon fillet powder (SFP) in various mixing ratios (100:0, 95:5, 93:7, and 90:10, respectively) were investigated. The results revealed that the nutritional and proximate composition of biscuits were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) improved: moisture (6.77 ± 0.06-7.65 ± 0.06), protein (13.23 ± 0.35-17.12 ± 0.02), fat (15.57 ± 0.18-15.85 ± 0.25), ash (0.84 ± 0.07-0.92 ± 0.06), spread ratio (14.0 ± 0.92-14.33 ± 0.21), and hardness (2,057.90 ± 28.33-3,089.02 ± 51.53). Total amino acids were 6.91, 9.34, 10.32, and 10.58; and EAAs were 2.43, 3.97, 4.48, and 4.22 g/100 g for 0%, 5%, 7%, and 10% SFP, respectively. Leucine was the major amino acid with 5% and 10% SFP, while methionine was the major amino acid with 7% SFP. Fungal counts were not observed, and quality indices were below the maximum acceptable limits in the products. Biscuits supplemented with 7% SFP showed the highest sensory evaluation score. Overall, the inclusion of 7% SFP could produce protein enriched cereal-based fortified biscuits with acceptable sensory and quality attributes and ultimately could insure effective fish utilization and solve malnutrition problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To determine the association between consumption of snacks and sweetened beverages and risk of overweight among children.Design: Secondary analysis of the Young Lives cohort study in Peru.Setting: Twenty sentinel sites from a total of 1818 districts available in Peru.Subjects: Children in the younger cohort of the Young Lives study in Peru, specifically those included in the third (2009) and the fourth (2013) rounds.Results: A total of 1813 children were evaluated at baseline; 49·2 % girls and mean age 8·0 (sd 0·3) years. At baseline, 3·3 (95 % CI 2·5, 4·2) % reported daily sweetened beverage consumption, while this proportion was 3·9 (95 % CI 3·1, 4·9) % for snacks. Baseline prevalence of overweight was 22·0 (95 % CI 20·1, 23·9) %. Only 1414 children were followed for 4·0 (sd 0·1) years, with an overweight incidence of 3·6 (95 % CI 3·1, 4·1) per 100 person-years. In multivariable analysis, children who consumed sweetened beverages and snacks daily had an average weight increase of 2·29 (95 % CI 0·62, 3·96) and 2·04 (95 % CI 0·48, 3·60) kg more, respectively, than those who never consumed these products, in approximately 4 years of follow-up. Moreover, there was evidence of an association between daily consumption of sweetened beverages and risk of overweight (relative risk=2·12; 95 % CI 1·05, 4·28).Conclusions: Daily consumption of sweetened beverages and snacks was associated with increased weight gain v. never consuming these products; and in the case of sweetened beverages, with higher risk of developing overweight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The present research aimed to investigate the impact of the physical activity calorie equivalent (PACE) front-of-pack label on consumption, prospective consumption and liking of familiar and unfamiliar discretionary snack foods.Design: In a within-subject randomised design, participants tasted and rated liking (9-point hedonic scale) and prospective consumption (9-point category scale) of four different snack foods with four different labels (i.e. blank, fake, PACE, PACE doubled) and four control snack foods. The twenty snack foods were presented during two 45 min sessions (i.e. ten snack foods per session) which were separated by one week. The amount participants sampled of each snack food was measured.Setting: The study was conducted in the Centre for Advanced Sensory Sciences laboratory at Deakin University, Australia.Subjects: The participants were 153 university students (126 females, twenty-seven males, mean age 24·3 (sd 4·9) years) currently enrolled in an undergraduate nutrition degree at Deakin University.Results: When the PACE label was present on familiar snack foods, participants sampled 9·9 % (22·8 (sem 1·4) v. 25·3 (sem 1·5) g, P=0·03) less than when such label was not present. This was in line with a decreased prospective snack food consumption of 9·1 % (3·0 (sem 0·2) v. 3·3 (sem 0·2) servings, P=0·03). Such pattern was not seen in unfamiliar snacks.Conclusions: The PACE label appears to be a promising way to decrease familiar discretionary snack food consumption in young, health-minded participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To characterize associations of snacking frequency with weight status among US children aged 1 to 5 years.Methods: Participants were children (n = 4,669) aged 1 to 5 years in the 2005 to 2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Snacking was assessed by two 24-hour dietary recalls using definitions that considered "snack" occasions as well as other foods/beverages consumed between meals. Overweight/obesity (OW/OB) was defined using percentile cutoffs: ≥ 97.7th weight-for-length (< 2 years) cutoff and the ≥ 85th BMI-for-age (≥ 2 years) cutoff. Linear/logistic regressions evaluated snacking based on daily occasions and relative to current recommendations (two to three snacks per day).Results: During 2005 to 2014, US children aged 1 to 5 years consumed, on average, two to three snacks daily. Children with normal weight in both age groups tended to snack less frequently than children with OW/OB when considering all foods/beverages eaten between meals (P < 0.01-0.12). Across most snacking definitions, children < 2 years who snacked more frequently than recommended had greater odds of having OW/OB (P < 0.01-0.12) and consumed greater daily snack energy than those who snacked within recommendations (all P < 0.01). Recommendations did not clearly delineate weight status among children aged 2 to 5 years.Conclusions: Snacking frequency and weight are positively associated among US children 1 to 5 years old, with most consistent associations seen among children < 2 years old and when considering all foods/beverages consumed between meals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We examined outcomes following the implementation of employer-wide vending standards, designed to increase healthy snack and beverage options, on the proportion of healthy v. less healthy sales, sales volume and revenue for snack and beverage vending machines.Design: A single-arm evaluation of a policy utilizing monthly sales volume and revenue data provided by the contracted vendor during baseline, machine conversion and post-conversion time periods. Study time periods are full calendar years unless otherwise noted.Setting: Property owned or leased by the City of Philadelphia, USA.Subjects: Approximately 250 vending machines over a 4-year period (2010-2013).Results: At post-conversion, the proportion of sales attributable to healthy items was 40 % for snacks and 46 % for beverages. Healthy snack sales were 323 % higher (38·4 to 162·5 items sold per machine per month) and total snack sales were 17 % lower (486·8 to 402·1 items sold per machine per month). Healthy beverage sales were 33 % higher (68·2 to 90·6 items sold per machine per month) and there was no significant change in total beverage sales (213·2 to 209·6 items sold per machine per month). Revenue was 11 % lower for snacks ($US 468·30 to $US 415·70 per machine per month) and 21 % lower for beverages ($US 344·00 to $US 270·70 per machine per month).Conclusions: Sales of healthy vending items were significantly higher following the implementation of employer-wide vending standards for snack and beverage vending machines. Entities receiving revenue-based commission payments from vending machines should employ strategies to minimize potential revenue losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of particle size grading of maize ( Zea mays L.) flour on the quality attributes of non-sour kokoro (a Nigerian maize-based snack) was investigated. White maize grains (DMR-ESR-W) was used for the study and the flour obtained from them was subsequently categorized into 297–420, 420–500, 500–595 and < 595 μm (whole flour mixture) respectively. Non-sour kokoro was produced from each flour category followed by subsequent analyses. The results showed that the parameters which increased in values with decrease in flour particle size (500–595 to 297–420 μm) were peak viscosity (89–128 RVU), breakdown viscosity (30–47 RVU), final viscosity (138–164 RVU), setback viscosity (84–99 RVU), lightness index (43–55), browning index (62.8–78) and force-at-peak (42–57 N). Those that decreased in values with decrease in flour particle size were peak time (7.2–5.3 min) and oiliness index (86-39 cm 2 ). The non-sour kokoro from 500 to 595 μm flour category was rated the highest in terms of colour, aroma, taste, texture and overall acceptability. The use of 500–595 μm flour category for the production of non-sour kokoro is therefore recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snack foods, though regarded as unhealthy, are widely eaten by children, particularly those with eating and feeding difficulties. This article outlines the ways in which paediatricians have traditionally made use of snack foods as incentives and then reviews the key nutritional and practical characteristics of commonly eaten snack foods, to allow practitioners to evaluate their role in the child's diet. Generally savoury snacks are preferable to sweet, while dry foods are preferable to drinks or semiliquid desserts. Many ostensibly healthy snacks are also rich in sugar or fat. Eaten in addition to other meals, snack foods may lead to obesity or else displace family foods, but the instant appeal of snack foods can be exploited to introduce young children to otherwise aversive sensations and tastes and can prove a useful path towards a more diverse future diet. If a reasonable variety of snack foods are taken, this will still form a fairly balanced, if non-ideal, diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to modify approach bias for healthy and unhealthy food and to determine its effect on subsequent food consumption. In addition, we investigated the potential moderating role of impulsivity in the effect of approach bias re-training on food consumption. Participants were 200 undergraduate women (17-26 years) who were randomly allocated to one of five conditions of an approach-avoidance task varying in the training of an approach bias for healthy food, unhealthy food, and non-food cues in a single session of 10 min. Outcome variables were approach bias for healthy and unhealthy food and the proportion of healthy relative to unhealthy snack food consumed. As predicted, approach bias for healthy food significantly increased in the 'avoid unhealthy food/approach healthy food' condition. Importantly, the effect of training on snack consumption was moderated by trait impulsivity. Participants high in impulsivity consumed a greater proportion of healthy snack food following the 'avoid unhealthy food/approach healthy food' training. This finding supports the suggestion that automatic processing of appetitive cues has a greater influence on consumption behaviour in individuals with poor self-regulatory control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing interest in non-genetically modified, healthy snacks. Soy snacks are available on the market but snacks from germinated soybean are limited. The objectives of this research were to germinate non-genetically modified soybeans, analyze their physicochemical and nutritional characteristics, and develop a prototype snack chip. Moisture, protein, and lipid contents of flours from soybeans germinated for 1, 3, or 5 d ranged from 2.4 to 5.3, 42.7–43.3, and 21.4–25.5 g/100 g respectively (P > 0.05), while lipoxygenase-1 and lipoxygenase-3 activity, and trypsin inhibitor reductions ranged from 2.8 to 17.2, 16.2–26.1, and 16.6–31.1% and estimated glycemic indices ranged from 12.1 to 19.5. These reductions and estimated glycemic indices showed significant differences among the germinated soybeans (P < 0.05). The flour made from 5 d germinated soybean resulted in the highest reduction in lipoxygenase-1 and lipoxygenase-3 activities, and trypsin inhibitor content. Five day germinated soybean chips were prepared with varying baking time, thickness, and amounts of baking soda. Based on fracturability, water activity, and color analysis, the optimal conditions were without baking soda, 1.25 mm thickness, and 10 min baking time. In conclusion, this prototype snack chip made from 5-day germinated soybean has the potential as a high nutritional, protein rich, low calorie healthy snack. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The present research investigated whether Temporal Self-Regulation Theory (TST) can be used to help understand healthy and unhealthy eating intentions and behaviour.Design: A prospective design with two waves of data collection one week apart.Method: An online survey measured the key components of TST (i.e., connectedness, timing and valence beliefs, intentions, past behaviour, habit strength, perceived environmental cues, and self-control) with respect to eating fruit and vegetables (F&V; N = 133) or unhealthy snacks (N = 125). Eating behaviour was assessed one week later.Results: The components of TST explained significant amounts of the variance in intentions and behaviour for intake of F&Vs (22% and 64%, respectively) and unhealthy snacks (18% and 35%, respectively). Beliefs about positive and negative short-term outcomes significantly predicted intentions to perform both behaviours. Intentions and past behaviour significantly predicted consumption of F&Vs, and past behaviour moderated the relationship between intention and behaviour which became stronger as past behaviour increased. Past behaviour and habit strength significantly predicted unhealthy snacking.Conclusions: The findings suggest that TST may be a useful framework for understanding eating intentions and behaviour. However, research did not find support for all of the hypothesised relationships (e.g., self-regulatory capacity did not significantly predict eating behaviour and also failed to moderate the relationships between intentions and behaviour). Research using alternative measures of self-regulatory capacity, along with experimental manipulations of TST variables, may be needed to further understand eating intentions and behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on the relative influence of package features on children's perception of food products is still necessary to aid policy design and development. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the relative influence of two front-of-pack (FOP) nutrition labelling schemes, the traffic light system and Chilean warning system, and label design on children's choice of two popular snack foods in Uruguay, wafer cookies and orange juice. A total of 442 children in grades 4 to 6 from 12 primary schools in Montevideo (Uruguay) participated in the study. They were asked to complete a choice-conjoint task with wafer cookies and orange juice labels, varying in label design and the inclusion of FOP nutrition information. Half of the children completed the task with labels featuring the traffic-light system (n = 217) and the other half with labels featuring the Chilean warning system (n = 225). Children's choices of wafer cookies and juice labels was significantly influenced by both label design and FOP nutritional labels. The relative impact of FOP nutritional labelling on children's choices was higher for the warning system compared to the traffic-light system. Results from the present work stress the need to regulate the design of packages and the inclusion of nutrient claims, and provide preliminary evidence of the potential of warnings to discourage children's choice of unhealthful products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compensatory Health Beliefs (CHBs), defined as beliefs that an unhealthy behavior can be compensated for by engaging in another healthy behavior, are assumed to hinder health behavior change. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of CHBs for two distinct eating behaviors (increased fruit and vegetable consumption and eating fewer unhealthy snacks) with a mixed method approach. Participants (N = 232, mean age = 27.3 years, 76.3% women) were randomly assigned to a fruit and vegetable or an unhealthy snack condition. For the quantitative approach, path models were fitted to analyze the role of CHBs within a social-cognitive theory of health behavior change, the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA). With a content analysis, the qualitative approach investigated the occurrence of CHBs in smartphone chat groups when pursuing an eating goal. Both analyses were conducted for each eating behavior separately. Path models showed that CHBs added predictive value for intention, but not behavior over and above HAPA variables only in the unhealthy snack condition. CHBs were significantly negatively associated with intention and action planning. Content analysis revealed that people generated only a few CHB messages. However, CHBs were more likely to be present and were also more diverse in the unhealthy snack condition compared to the fruit and vegetable condition. Based on a mixed method approach, this study suggests that CHBs play a more important role for eating unhealthy snacks than for fruit and vegetable consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveThe high energy intake from energy-dense foods among children in developed countries is undesirable. Improving food parenting practices has the potential to lower snack intakes among children. To inform the development of interventions, we aimed to predict food parenting practice patterns around snacking (i.e. ‘high covert control and rewarding’, ‘low covert control and non-rewarding’, ‘high involvement and supportive’ and ‘low involvement and indulgent’).DesignA cross-sectional survey was conducted. To predict the patterns of food parenting practices, multinomial logistic regression analyses were run with 888 parents. Predictors included predisposing factors (i.e. parents’ and children’s demographics and BMI, parents’ personality, general parenting, and parenting practices used by their own parents) and parents’ cognitions (i.e. perceived behaviour of other parents, subjective norms, attitudes, self-efficacy and outcome expectations).SettingThe Netherlands (October–November 2014).SubjectsDutch parents of children aged 4–12 years old.ResultsAfter backward elimination, nineteen factors had a statistically significant contribution to the model (Nagelkerke R2=0·63). Overall, self-efficacy and outcome expectations were among the strongest explanatory factors. Considering the predisposing factors only, the general parenting factor nurturance most strongly predicted the food parenting clusters. Nurturance particularly distinguished highly involved parents from parents employing a pattern of low involvement.ConclusionsParental cognitions and nurturance are important factors to explain the use of food parenting practices around snacking. The results suggest that intervention developers should attempt to increase self-efficacy and educate parents about what constitute effective and ineffective parenting practices. Promoting nurturance might be a prerequisite to achieve prolonged change. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objective: To quantify and compare the nutrient-density of commonly consumed snacks using two nutrient-density measures, Nutrient Rich Foods Indices 9.3 (NRF 9.3) and 15.3 (NRF 15.3). Design: Identify commonly consumed categories of snacks and individual snack foods, calculate NRF 9.3 and 15.3 scores, rank snacks by category and by individual food based on nutrient density, compare and contrast scores generated by the two NRF Indices. Main Outcome Measures: NRF 9.3 and 15.3 scores. Analysis: Averages and standard deviations of nutrient-density scores for each snack category. Results: Vegetables and coffee/tea received the highest category scores on both indices. Cakes/cookies/pastries and sweets had the lowest category scores. NRF 9.3 scores for individual snacks ranged from -46 (soda) to 524 (coffee). NRF 15.3 scores ranged from -45 (soda) to 736 (coffee). Conclusions and Implications: If added to food labels, NRF scores could help consumers identify more nutritious choices. The differences between NRF 9.3 and 15.3 scores generated for the same foods and the limitations of these indices highlight the need for careful consideration of which nutrient-density measure to include on food labels as well as consumer education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Well-informed interventions are needed if school-based health promotion is to be effective. Among other aims, the Iranian Health Promoting School (IHPS) program that was launched in 2011, has an important aim of promoting dietary behaviors of adolescents. The present study, therefore, aimed to investigate the factors affecting unhealthy snacking of adolescents and provide evidence for a more effective IHPS program. Methods: In a cross-sectional study design, 1320 students from 40 schools in Kerman city were selected using a proportional stratified random sampling method. A modified qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was used to gather data about unhealthy snacking behavior. Data about intrapersonal and environmental factors were obtained using a validated and reliable questionnaire. A mixed-effects negative-binomial regression model was used to analyze the data. Results: Taste and sensory perception (prevalence rate ratio [PRR] = 1.18; 95% CI: 1.09-1.27), being a male (PRR = 1.20; 95% CI: 1.05-1.38) and lower nutritional knowledge (PRR = 0.96; 95% CI: 0.91-0.99) were associated with higher weekly unhealthy snaking. Perceived self-efficacy (PRR = 0.95; 95% CI: 0.91-1.00) negatively influenced the frequency of unhealthy snaking, with this approaching significance (P < .06). In case of environmental factors, high socio-economic status (SES) level (PRR = 1.45; 95% CI: 1.26-1.67), single-parent family (PRR = 1.14; 95% CI: 1.01-1.30), more social norms pressure (PRR = 1.08; 95% CI: 1.01-1.17), pocket money allowance (PRR = 1.21; 95% CI: 1.09-1.34), easy accessibility (PRR = 1.06; 95% CI:1.01-1.11), and less perceived parental control (PRR = 0.96; 95% CI: 0.92-0.99) all had a role in higher consumption of unhealthy snacks. Interestingly, larger school size was associated with less unhealthy snacking (PRR = 0.79; 95% CI: 0.68-0.92). Conclusion: Unhealthy snacking behavior is influenced by individual, socio-cultural and physical-environmental influences, namely by factors relating to poor parenting practices, high SES level, family characteristics, improper social norms pressure, and less knowledge and self-efficacy of students. This evidence can be used to inform a more evidencebased IHPS program through focusing on supportive strategies at the home, school, and local community levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The present study aimed to evaluate the association of 4-year-old children's dietary patterns with adiposity at 7 years, according to child's sex, using a conceptual model.Design: Prospective cohort study. Diet was assessed using an FFQ. Age- and sex-specific BMI standard deviation scores (Z-scores) were defined according to the WHO. Fat mass percentage (FM%), fat mass index (FMI) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) were also considered, converted into Z-scores using sex-specific means and standard deviations of the current sample. Dietary patterns were identified by latent class analysis and their association with adiposity was estimated by linear regression models.Setting: Population-based birth cohort Generation XXI (Porto, Portugal, 2005-2006).Subjects: Children (n 3473) evaluated at both 4 and 7 years of age.Results: Three dietary patterns were identified: high in energy-dense foods (EDF); low in foods typically consumed at main meals and intermediate in snacks (Snacking); and higher in vegetables and fish and lower in EDF (Healthier, reference). The EDF dietary pattern at 4 years of age was positively associated with later BMI only in girls (β=0·075, 95 % CI 0·009, 0·140, P-interaction=0·046). The EDF dietary pattern was also associated with other adiposity indicators only in girls (FMI: β=0·071, 95 % CI 0·000, 0·142; WHtR: β=0·094, 95 % CI 0·023, 0·164). Snacking was not significantly associated with any marker of adiposity in either girls or boys.Conclusions: Although dietary patterns and adiposity persisted across the two ages in both sexes, EDF at 4 years of age increased adiposity at 7 years of age only in girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study aimed to examine the effect of giving temporally framed health information regarding either the immediate or long-term health consequences of consuming high-calorie snacks, for people with high Negative Urgency (a dimension of impulsivity), and for those primed with impulsivity. We expected that for participants with high Negative Urgency, and those primed with impulsivity, information which detailed the immediate health benefits of avoiding snack consumption would be more effective than information which detailed long-term health benefits. Participants (N=110) completed a measure of Negative Urgency, reported their snacking frequency over the previous seven days, and completed either an impulsivity or neutral prime task. Following this, they read information detailing either the immediate or long-term health benefits of avoiding high-calorie snacks. High-calorie snack consumption was reported 7days later. The results showed a significant three-way interaction between Negative Urgency, prime task, and temporal frame. Participants who were primed with impulsivity and those high in Negative Urgency showed a greater reduction in snacking frequency after being given information about the immediate vs. long-term health benefits of snacking. The results suggest that the immediacy of health consequences should be considered when designing health information to reduce impulsive snacking behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snacking has become more prevalent in developed countries. While poor food choices pose health risks, nutritious choices contribute important nutrients to overall dietary intakes. Young adults consumer snacks frequently and nutritious choices should be promoted among this group. However, how young adults define the term 'nutritious' currently and how they evaluate the nutritiousness of various snack foods required further investigation. The current study used a mixed methods design with 115 young adults invited to sort 32 commonly available snack foods into a line ranging from 'not nutritious' to 'very nutritious'. The sorting data was analysed by hierarchical cluster analysis and multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) analysis. Participants were also asked to define the word 'nutritious', with definitions then categorized and number of counts per category analysed. Predictors of perceived snack nutritiousness were sugar (β = -0.45, P < 0.005), fat (β = -0.43, P < 0.05), nut (β = 0.45, P < 0.05) and fruit/vegetable (β = 0.33, P < 0.05) content. Level of food processing was significantly related to perceived nutritiousness (β = 0.79, P=<0.05). The terms given within the definitions most frequently were: 'vitamins' (40%), 'good for body/body needs' (40%), 'minerals' (39%), 'low in sugars' (36%), 'protein' (32%), 'healthy' (28%) and 'long lasting source of energy' (27%). Results of the current study provide first insight into how young adults interpret the term 'nutritious'. This could help in the design of more effective nutrition education materials and food product labels to guide healthy choices in this age group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Little is known about intergenerational differences in associations of urbanization-related lifestyle behaviors with cardiometabolic risk factors in children and their parents in rapidly urbanizing China. Objective: We tested the intergenerational differences in longitudinal associations of away-from-home eating, snacking, screen time, and leisure-time sports with high waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), elevated blood pressure (BP), elevated glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) among Chinese children and their parents. Design: We studied children enrolled in the longitudinal China Health and Nutrition Survey (1991-2009, 7 surveys) aged 7-17 y in ≥2 surveys (average follow-up: 2.3 surveys out of a possible 4 surveys with the age restriction; n = 3875, including 1175 siblings) and their parents (2947 mothers, 2632 fathers) living in the same household. We used 3 consecutive interviewer-administered 24-h dietary recalls to derive a 3-d average for away-from-home eating (nonconsumer, >0 and <1 meal/d, or ≥1 meals/d) and consumption of fruit or vegetable snacks (any or none) and other snacks (any or none) and a selfreported 7-d physical activity recall for screen time (≤1, >1 and ≤2, or >2 h/d) and leisure-time sports (any or none). Random-effects logistic regression was used to examine the associations of lagged (average: 3 y) behaviors with cardiometabolic risk factors (WHtR, BP, HbA1c, and CRP). Results: We detected intergenerational differences in associations between lagged behaviors and risk factors (P-interaction < 0.1). Generation-specific models showed that lagged away-from-home eating of ≥1 meal/d (compared with none) was negatively associated with parents' high WHtR (OR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.53, 0.88) but positively associated with children's high WHtR (OR: 1.46; 95% CI: 1.01, 2.12). Lagged fruit and vegetable snack consumption was negatively related to parents' (OR: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.59, 0.97) and children's (OR: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.33, 1.00) high WHtR. Lagged screen time (>2 compared with ≤1 h/d) was positively associated with parents' (OR: 2.58; 95% CI: 1.56, 4.28) and children's high WHtR (OR: 2.26; 95% CI: 1.06, 4.83). Conclusion: Parent-offspring differences in associations between lifestyle behaviors and cardiometabolic risk factors provide insight into intergenerational differences in cardiometabolic risk with urbanization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND In this study, research on the development of a puffed wheat snack using the instant controlled pressure drop ( DIC) process was carried out. Snack products were produced by expanding moistened wheat under various DIC processing conditions in order to obtain adequate puffing, followed by drying in a hot air dryer. The effects of operational variables such as wheat initial moisture content (11-23% w/w, wet basis), processing pressure (3-5 × 102 kPa) and processing time (3-11 min) on the physical (density, color and textural characteristics) and sensory properties of the product were investigated. RESULTS The physical properties of the wheat snack were most affected by changes in processing pressure, followed by processing time and wheat moisture content. Increasing processing pressure and time often improved expansion and textural properties but led to darkening of the raw wheat color. The most acceptable snack in terms of physical properties was obtained at the lowest wheat moisture content. Sensory analysis suggested that consumer acceptability was optimal for wheat snacks produced at higher processing pressure, medium processing time and lower moisture content. CONCLUSION The most desirable conditions for puffed wheat snack production using the DIC process were determined as 11% (w/w) of wheat moisture content, 5 × 102 kPa of processing pressure and 7 min of processing time. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociological analysis of eating has for a long time tracked the fate of a popularly endorsed, idealized form of the “family” or “proper” meal. “Snacking” has often been constructed as its symbolic opposite, as irregular, anomic and unhealthy. This paper, based on data from a survey of eating patterns conducted in Great Britain in 2012 (n = 2,784), analyzes eating occasions which respondents stated were snacks rather than meals, focusing on their frequency, scheduling, contents, duration and social context. It finds that “snacks” are taken across all socio-demographic groups and take place in accordance with a common and predictable schedule. Snacks are smaller and less structured than most meals but mostly do not comprise what is generically described as “snack foods.” Snacks are shorter in duration, and less sociable than other eating events, reflecting their size, simplicity and informality. However, most are eaten in company, are planned for, and are wholesome. Common negative evaluations of eating between and outside meals have failed to appreciate the range and character of adjunct eating events, and the degree to which they form part of aggregate patterns and individual routines. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

How do cluttered, chaotic environments--such as messy kitchens--influence snacking behavior? How does one's mind-set help prevent unwanted snacking from occurring? One hundred one female undergraduate students participated under standard-kitchen conditions or in a chaotic-kitchen condition. Participants were also asked to recall and write about a time when they felt particularly in control or particularly out of control. Finally, participants were given cookies, crackers, and carrots to taste and rate. Participants in the chaotic-kitchen condition and the out-of-control mind-set condition consumed more cookies (103 kcal) than did participants who were in the incontrol mind-set condition (38 kcal). The chaotic environment had no impact on consumption of crackers or carrots. Although a chaotic environment can create a vulnerability to making unhealthy food choices, one's mind-set in that environment can either trigger or buffer against that vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. Snacks are common food throughout the world including subcontinent. Most of the snack foods are prepared in oil and fat. In current study, fried vermicelli (common snack food) was selected to evaluate the quality as it is largely consumed in many countries. Materials and methods. Fried vermicelli was subjected for the extraction of total oil by applying Soxhlet extraction method using hexane as a solvent. Fatty acid composition of extracted fried vermicelli oil was checked on GC-MS. Similarly, FTIR spectroscopy was also used to record the spectra of same oil for the development of simple methodology to quantify fatty acid groups and ratios. Results and discussion. High percentage of oil content was observed in all fried vermicelli samples (19.77–32.99%). Fatty acid composition exposed that palmitic (34.6–47.5%), stearic (4.76 to 10.6%), oleic (27.2–37.0%) and elaidic acid (12.0– 24.3%) were predominant fatty acids among saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. While polyunsatured fatty acids were observed comparatively in less quantity in fried vermicelli (0.66 to 5.99 %). The presence of higher trans fatty acids indicated that fried vermicelli was prepared in hydrogenated oil. Fatty acid ratios of some important groups were observed in the range of 0.72–1.92 SFA/UFA, 0.013–0.130 cis PUFA/SFA, 0.1 to 1.81 trans FA/cis FA, 0.01 to 0.097 cis PUFA/SFA + TFA, 27.7–37.05 cis MUFA + cis PUFA/SFA + TFA. The obtained results of groups and ratios by GC-MS were used to develop different calibration models for the quantification of fatty acid groups and fatty acid ratios using PLS chemometric approach. The developed PLS models using selected wavelength regions showed higher correlations (>0.99) with GC-MS results. Conclusions. It can be concluded that quality of fried vermicelli marketed locally is worrisome matter for the consumers and quality control authorities. FTIR provided complete profiling of groups and ratios in fried vermicelli very accurately with negligible difference in the results. The proposed methodology serves as a rapid and simple quantitative tool for quality evaluation of major groups and ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When confronted with a three-choice paradigm, products placed in the middle position are selected more frequently compared to peripheral options. Under low self-regulatory resource conditions, exploiting the middle position preference may be a promising nudge towards healthier food choices. This study aims to investigate boundary conditions of the middle choice preference in a convenience sample (n = 182) using a 2 (high depletion vs. low depletion of self-regulatory resources) × 2 (low caloric snack position: left vs. middle) between-subjects design. Three different snack bars were positioned from left to right in ascending order of calorie content (apple, chocolate-banana and chocolate) with the apple variety as either positioned on the left side or in the middle position (nudge). Our results showed that across all participants, no middle position preference could be observed between different snacks (χ 2 (2) = 0.28, p = 0.35), neither for participants in low depletion (36.8%; 35/95), χ 2 (1) = 0.18, p = 0.53 or high depletion condition (35.6%; 31/87), χ 2 (1) = 0.83, p = 0.25. Liking and gender did not influence choice behavior. Our findings suggest that nudging healthy middle choice preferences is limited to the extent of self-regulatory resource availability. This boundary condition should be considered when designing public health interventions to nudge healthier food choices based on middle position preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marketing of foods and beverages high in fat, sugar and salt are suggested to contribute to poor dietary behaviours in children and diet-related diseases later in life. This systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials aimed to assess the effects of unhealthy food and beverage marketing on dietary intake (grams or kilocalories) and dietary preference (preference score or percentage of participants who selected specific foods/beverages) among children 2 to 18 years of age. We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE and PsycINFO up to January 2015 for terms related to advertising, unhealthy foods or beverages among children. Randomized trials that assessed the effects of unhealthy food and beverage marketing compared with non-dietary advertisement or no advertisement in children were considered eligible. Two authors independently extracted information on study characteristics and outcomes of interest and assessed risk of bias and the overall quality of evidence using grade methodology. Meta-analysis was conducted separately for dietary intake and preference using a random-effects model. We identified 29 eligible studies, of which 17 studies were included for meta-analysis of dietary preference and nine for meta-analysis of dietary intake. Almost half of the studies were at high risk of bias. Our meta-analysis showed that in children exposed to unhealthy dietary marketing, dietary intake significantly increased (mean difference [MD] = 30.4 kcal, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.9 to 57.9, and MD = 4.8 g, 95%CI 0.8 to 8.8) during or shortly after exposure to advertisements. Similarly, children exposed to the unhealthy dietary marketing had a higher risk of selecting the advertised foods or beverages (relative risk = 1.1, 95%CI 1.0 to 1.2; P = 0.052). The evidence indicates that unhealthy food and beverage marketing increases dietary intake (moderate quality evidence) and preference (moderate to low quality evidence) for energy-dense, low-nutrition food and beverage. Unhealthy food and beverage marketing increased dietary intake and influenced dietary preference in children during or shortly after exposure to advertisements. © 2016 World Obesity [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this study was to evaluate an intervention designed to assist after-school programs (ASPs) in meeting snack nutrition policies that specify that a fruit or vegetable be served daily and sugar-sweetened beverages/foods and artificially flavored foods eliminated.Design: The study used a 1-year group-randomized controlled trial.Setting: The study took place in ASPs operating in South Carolina, United States.Subjects: Twenty ASPs serving over 1700 children were recruited, match-paired postbaseline on enrollment size and days fruits/vegetables were served per week, and randomized to either intervention (n = 10) or control (n = 10) groups.Intervention: The study used Strategies To Enhance Practice for Healthy Eating (STEPs-HE), a multistep adaptive intervention framework that assists ASP leaders and staff to serve snacks that meet nutrition policies while maintaining cost.Measures: Direct observation of snacks served and consumed and monthly snack expenditures as determined by receipts were used.Analysis: The study used nonparametric and mixed-model repeated measures.Results: By postassessment, intervention ASPs increased serving of fruits/vegetables to 3.9 ± 2.1 vs. 0.7 ± 1.7 d/wk and decreased serving sugar-sweetened beverages to 0.1 ± 0.7 vs. 1.8 ± 2.4 d/wk and sugar-sweetened foods to 0.3 ± 1.1 vs. 2.7 ± 2.5 d/wk compared to controls, respectively. Cost of snacks increased by $0.02/snack in the intervention ASPs ($0.36 to $0.38) compared to a $0.01 per snack decrease in the control group ($0.39 to $0.38). Across both assessments and groups, 80% to 100% of children consumed FVs.Conclusions: The STEPs-HE intervention can assist ASPs in meeting nationally endorsed nutrition policies with marginal increases in cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Despite their good intentions, people often do not eat healthily. This is known as the intention-behavior gap. Although the intention-behavior relationship is theorized as a within-person process, most evidence is based on between-person differences.Purpose: The purpose of the present study is to investigate the within-person intention-behavior association for unhealthy snack consumption.Methods: Young adults (N = 45) participated in an intensive longitudinal study. They reported intentions and snack consumption five times daily for 7 days (n = 1068 observations analyzed).Results: A within-person unit difference in intentions was associated with a halving of the number of unhealthy snacks consumed in the following 3 h (CI95 27-70 %). Between-person differences in average intentions did not predict unhealthy snack consumption.Conclusions: Consistent with theory, the intention-behavior relation for healthy eating is best understood as a within-person process. Interventions to reduce unhealthy snacking should target times of day when intentions are weakest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present work was to study the effect of hot-air drying on the quality of chestnut slices, regarding fatty acid and vitamin E composition. Chestnut slices of two varieties, Longal and Judia, were dried in a tray dryer at 50 °C, for 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 h. Concerning fatty acids, at beginning both varieties presented significant different contents in C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2cc, C20:0 and C20:1, being C18:2cc the most abundant. Concerning vitamin E, both varieties had similar γ- and δ-tocopherol contents; however, after 10 h of drying their concentrations decreased in Longal (19.2 and 14.4 %, respectively). It was also in slices of Longal variety that a significant decrease was observed in C18:0 (15.0 %), C18:1 (19.4 %), C20:0 (14.3 %) and C20:1 (11.1 %) after 10 h of drying, suggesting this variety to be a little more heat sensible than Judia. Even though some variation on lipid composition was observed along drying of chestnuts, the variety showed to have a higher effect than the drying process itself. Thus, hot air convective drying seems to be an interesting process to apply in the future to this nut in order to produce a healthy snack, not causing potential losses from a nutritional point of view. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Most adolescents consume ≥1 snack/d; exploring the relevance of snacking patterns for overall diet and weight status is important to guide dietary counseling and public health strategies for obesity prevention.Objective: This study examined intake of common energy-dense snack foods, total number of snacks consumed, frequency of consuming snacks prepared away from home, and frequency of snacking while watching television in adolescents and how these behaviors may be linked to diet and weight status. Relations were examined with attention to potential confounders that may help explain the mixed findings of previous research.Methods: Survey measures of snacking behavior, a food-frequency questionnaire, and anthropometric measurements were completed by 2793 adolescents (53.2% girls, mean age = 14.4 y) in Minneapolis-St. Paul school classrooms in 2009-2010. Linear regression was used to examine associations with adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics and other potential confounding factors, such as meal skipping, underreporting energy intake, dieting to lose weight, and physical activity.Results: Adolescents reported consuming a mean of 2.2 energy-dense snack food servings/d and 4.3 snacks/d and purchasing snacks prepared away from home on 3.2 occasions/wk. More than two-thirds of adolescents reported that they sometimes, usually, or always consumed a snack while watching television. The measures of snacking were directly associated (P < 0.01) with higher energy, lower fruit/vegetable, higher sugar-sweetened beverage, and more frequent fast-food intakes in all models except for one: energy-dense snack food servings were not related to sugar-sweetened beverage intake. A direct relation between daily servings of energy-dense snack foods and body mass index (BMI) z score was found; however, the snacking behaviors were inversely related to BMI z score (P < 0.01).Conclusions: The observed cross-sectional associations suggest that snack consumption is a risk factor for poor diet, but unless energy-dense foods are consumed, snacking does not consistently contribute to overweight in US adolescents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objective: The high prevalence of obesity in the pediatric age groups draws attention to lifestyle factors including diet and physical activity. Data on obesity in adolescents and their snacking behavior are conflicting. This study aimed to assess the association of snacking behavior and obesity among female adolescents in Isfahan, Iran.Subjects and Design: This cross-sectional study was carried out on 265 female Isfahanian students who were chosen by systematic cluster random sampling. Dietary intake was assessed using a validated self-administered semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire that included 53 food items. Snacking behavior was defined by healthy snack score in combination with the frequency of snack intake.Results: Individuals who consumed more healthy snacks and those with snacking frequency of 4 times a day or more had significantly lower weight, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference (p < 0.001). Decreased consumption of healthy snacks was significantly associated with a greater chance of being overweight, generally obese, and abdominally obese among adolescents (odds ratio [OR] = 1.98; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.00-3.14, ptrend = 0.04 and OR = 2.10; 95% CI, 1.01-3.13, ptrend = 0.04, respectively). Frequency of snack intake was inversely related to overweight, general obesity, and abdominal obesity (OR = 3.23; 95% CI, 1.73-5.61, ptrend = 0.03 and OR = 1.84; 95% CI, 1.05-3.20, ptrend = 0.04, respectively). Healthy snack score in combination with frequency of snacking showed that those in the lowest tertile of snacking who consumed snacks less than 4 times/day had the highest risk of obesity compared to other categories (OR = 2.09, 95% CI, 1.11-3.20, p < 0.001).Conclusion: More frequent consumption of healthy snacks is associated with decreased prevalence of overweight, general obesity, and abdominal obesity in adolescents. Further studies, in particular of a prospective nature, are required to examine this association in other populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to develop health promoting extruded snack products. Extruded snacks were prepared using a blend of oat, green pea and fenugreek seed flour and leaf powder. Effect of feed moisture (12–16% wet basis), barrel temperature (90–110 °C) and screw speed (100–200 rpm) on the product properties like lateral expansion (LE), bulk density (BD), water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI) and hardness was investigated. The product responses were significantly affected by changes in moisture, temperature and screw speed. The regression models for product responses like LE, BD, and hardness were highly significant (P≤0.0001), whereas WAI and WSI were significant at a (P≤0.001) respectively. Desirable extruded products were obtained at moisture of 12%, 110 °C temperature and 200 rpm screw speed. It was revealed that fenugreek, oat and dried green pea can be used to produce snack products with desirable quality characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cost-benefit decision-making entails the process of evaluating potential actions according to the trade-off between the expected reward (benefit) and the anticipated effort (costs). Recent research revealed that dopaminergic transmission within the fronto-striatal circuitry strongly modulates cost-benefit decision-making. Alterations within the dopaminergic fronto-striatal system have been associated with obesity, but little is known about cost-benefit decision-making differences in obese compared with lean individuals. With a newly developed experimental task we investigate obesity-associated alterations in cost-benefit decision-making, utilizing physical effort by handgrip-force exertion and both food and non-food rewards. We relate our behavioral findings to alterations in local gray matter volume assessed by structural MRI. Obese compared with lean subjects were less willing to engage in physical effort in particular for high-caloric sweet snack food. Further, self-reported body dissatisfaction negatively correlated with the willingness to invest effort for sweet snacks in obese men. On a structural level, obesity was associated with reductions in gray matter volume in bilateral prefrontal cortex. Nucleus accumbens volume positively correlated with task induced implicit food craving. Our results challenge the common notion that obese individuals are willing to work harder to obtain high-caloric food and emphasize the need for further exploration of the underlying neural mechanisms regarding cost-benefit decision-making differences in obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore snacking behavior and perspectives on healthy and unhealthy food choices among adolescents in Mainland China.Design/methodology/approach Four focus-group interviews were conducted. Altogether 24 participants were recruited in Changsha, a second-tier city in China, through a convenience sampling process. They were asked to report their snacking behaviors, identify whether certain snacks are healthy or unhealthy and elaborate on factors affecting food choices.Findings Snacking was prevalent among the participants. The most frequently consumed snacks included fruit, milk and instant noodles. Participants’ evaluations for the healthiness of foods were based on the actual nutritional values of those foods, the effects on growth and body weight and word-of-mouth. Choice of snack was driven mainly by taste, image, convenience and health consciousness.Research limitations/implications The finding was based on a non-probability sample. The paper also did not explore the contexts where snacks were consumed.Practical implications Parents can make healthy snacks more accessible at home and at schools. Educators can teach adolescents how to read food labels. Schools can increase the availability of healthy snacks on campus. Social marketers can promote healthy snacks by associating them with fun and high taste.Originality/value This is the first paper on snacking behaviors among adolescents conducted in a second-tier city in China using focus-group methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study sought to test the effect of a brief evaluative conditioning intervention on experienced temptation to indulge, and consumption of, unhealthy snack foods. We expected that a training task associating unhealthy food with negative affect would result in lower experienced temptation across the sample, but would lead to lower snack consumption only among individuals with low state inhibitory control. Undergraduate women ( N = 134) aged 17–25 years were randomised to complete an evaluative conditioning procedure pairing unhealthy food with either positive or negative affect. Snack consumption was subsequently assessed using a taste-test procedure which offered four snack foods for ad libitum consumption. Participants also reported the strength of their experienced temptation to indulge in the foods presented. Additionally, they completed a Stop Signal Task as a measure of state inhibitory control. As predicted, participants in the food negative condition ate less than those in the food positive condition, but this effect was only observed among individuals with low inhibitory control. The same moderation pattern was observed for the effect of evaluative conditioning on temptation: only participants with low inhibitory control reported feeling less tempted by the snack foods in the food negative condition compared to the food positive condition. In addition, temptation mediated the effect of evaluative conditioning on intake for individuals with low inhibitory control. Findings suggest that evaluative conditioning of unhealthy food stimuli could be especially useful for reducing temptation and consumption of unhealthy snacks in situations where individuals experience low inhibitory control capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several studies have shown that cocoa and cocoa-containing foods have the potential to lower blood pressure and improve endothelial function. Most of the studies reporting the beneficial effects of dark chocolate on blood pressure have been short (≤ 4 weeks). The aim of the present 8-wks (weeks) study was to assess the effects of regular consumption of dark chocolate during a reduced snack consumption intervention on blood pressure and other cardiovascular risk factors in mildly hypertensive individuals. Design: This was a randomized, controlled, cross-over trial involving 22 adults (8 women, 14 men), aged 33-64 y, BMI 27.7 ± 3.7 kg/m² with mild hypertension. During the intervention period (8-wks) the participants reduced the intake of habitual snacks and replaced them with dark chocolate (49 g/day). In the control period, they only reduced the snacks without any added chocolate. Data (blood lipid profile, glucose, insulin, 24 h blood pressure) was collected in the beginning and end of both periods (intervention and control), and some variables also in the run-in and run-out periods (weight, body fat percentage, blood pressure, arterial stiffness index, diet and physical activity). Results: Daily consumption of dark chocolate had no effects on 24 h blood pressure, resting blood pressure (mean ± SD, pre 142 ± 11.5/89 ± 8.4 mmHg vs. post 142 ± 14.2/88 ± 9.4 mmHg in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively) or arterial stiffness (mean ± SD, pre 7.68 ± 0.88 vs. post 7.76 ± 0.89). Weight was reduced by 1.0 ± 2.2 kg during the control (reduced snack only) period, but was unchanged while eating chocolate (p < 0.027 between the treatments). Conclusion: The data collected in this study indicates that inclusion of dark chocolate daily in the diet had no significant effects on blood pressure or other cardiovascular risk factors during a reduced snack period. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT02130141 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveWe examined the association between unhealthy snacking at school and academic outcomes in students from the Santiago Metropolitan Region (Chile).DesignCross-sectional population-based study.SettingWe measured the nutritional quality of snacks at school using an FFQ, and accounting for the amounts of saturated fat, fibre, sugar and salt in the foods, and academic outcomes using national standardized test scores in Language and Mathematics. Multivariate regression analyses modelled the relationship between unhealthy snacking at school (exposure), potential confounders and performance in Mathematics and Language (outcomes).SubjectsRandom sample of 1073 students (13·1 (sd 2·3) years old) attending public, partially subsidized and private schools.ResultsFifty-six per cent of students ate items at snack time that were high in fat, sugar, salt and energy, and thus were considered to have unhealthy snaking. Thirty-six per cent and 8 % were considered to have poor-to-fair and healthy snacking, respectively. Unhealthy snacking significantly lowered the odds of good academic performance in both domains. Students having unhealthy snacks were 56 % less likely to pass in Language (fully adjusted OR=0·44; 95 % CI 0·23, 0·85) and 66 % less likely to pass in Mathematics (fully adjusted OR=0·34; 95 % CI 0·19, 0·64) compared with students having healthy snack items.ConclusionsSchoolchildren eating unhealthy foods at snack time had worse academic performance in Language and Mathematics, as measured by a standardized test. Although association does not imply causation, these findings support the notion that academic and health-related behaviours are linked. More research is needed on the effect of school health programmes on educational outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

BACKGROUND: Snack foods; crisps and biscuits, and beverages; fruit juices and soft drinks, are some of the most commonly consumed products by children of school age worldwide. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to investigate if snack foods and beverages are suitable for consumption by children of school age through recording and comparing the nutritional information presented on the nutrition panel such as energy, protein, total carbohydrates and total fat for these products. METHODS: The nutritional information from 56 products sold in different supermarket out lets across Muscat, the capital city of Oman, was collected and statistically analysed using the mean and the percentage of Recommended Daily Intake. RESULTS: Based on the percentage of Recommended Daily Intake of energy and nutrients, crisps offer higher amounts of energy and total fat for children when compared to biscuits. Meanwhile, biscuits offer lower amount of energy than crisps but offer a higher amount of total carbohydrates for children. Regarding fruit juices and soft drinks, the former offer higher amount of energy than the later but both, however, offer comparable amounts of total carbohydrates. CONCLUSION: Upon comparing the nutritional information of the products studied and considering their nutritional benefits and health risks, it seems that biscuits are suitable choice for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increase in celiac consumers has caused an increasing interest to develop good quality gluten-free food products with high nutritional value. Snack foods are consumed worldwide and have become a normal part of the eating habits of the celiac population making them a target to improve their nutritive value. Extrusion and deep-frying of unripe plantain, chickpea, and maize flours blends produced gluten-free snacks with high dietary fiber contents (13.7-18.2 g/100 g) and low predicted glycemic index (28 to 35). The gluten-free snacks presented lower fat content (12.7 to 13.6 g/100 g) than those reported in similar commercial snacks. The snack with the highest unripe plantain flour showed higher slowly digestible starch (11.6 and 13.4 g/100 g) than its counterpart with the highest chickpea flour level (6 g/100 g). The overall acceptability of the gluten-free snacks was similar to that chili-flavored commercial snack. It was possible to develop gluten-free snacks with high dietary fiber content and low predicted glycemic index with the blend of the 3 flours, and these gluten-free snacks may also be useful as an alternative to reduce excess weight and obesity problems in the general population and celiac community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To describe national trends in discretionary calories from sugar sweetened beverage (SSB) and snacks by age-specific body weight categories and by age- and weight-specific race/ethnicity groups. Examining these subpopulations is important as population averages may mask important differences. Design and Methods 24-hour dietary recall data obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2010 among children aged 2 to 19 ( N = 14,092) were used. Logistic and linear regression methods were used to adjust for multiple covariates and survey design. Results The number of calories from SSBs declined significantly for nearly all age-specific body weight groups. Among overweight or obese children, significant declines in the number of calories from SSBs were observed among Hispanic children aged 2 to 5 (117 vs. 174 kcal) and white adolescents aged 12 to 19 (299 vs. 365 kcal). Significant declines in the number of calories from salty snacks were observed among white children aged 2 to 5 (192 to 134 kcal) and 6 to 11 (273 vs. 200 kcal). Conclusions The decrease in SSB consumption and increase in snack consumption observed in prior research are not uniform when children are examined within subgroups accounting for age, weight, and race/ethnicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]