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AbstractMicro-enterprises (MEs) are important players in job creation and global economic development. However, in developing countries, most fail to realise their growth potential due to challenges that include informality and a lack of quality human capital. The internet, by increasing information flows and reducing transaction costs, can help MEs to develop. This study assesses the effect of the internet on MEs’ performance in the service sector in Togo, using a large sample of 23,542 observations from the latest General Census of Businesses (RGE, 2017–2018), and exposes related channels and mechanisms. We find that MEs that adopt and use the internet are more productive than those that do not. This result remains robust to different regression methods such as instrumental variables and treatment-effects estimations. Complementary analyses show the positive effect of internet channels through applications such as e-mail, websites and e-business. We also find evidence that MEs with a Fixed internet connection perform better than those with a Mobile internet connection. Our investigations also yield interesting results regarding Togolese regions, service sub-sectors, managers’ characteristics and MEs’ status. This article thus highlights the need to promote digital development to enhance MEs’ performance in Togo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The imperative need of this hour is to measure the influence of high-performance work system (HPWS) research and comprehend its patterns as HPWS became more prevalent in service- oriented businesses. Underscoring this, authors aim to shed light on the publication trends and set the future research schema in the arena of HPWS with special reference to the service sector context. The study adopts a bibliometric approach as authors intend to identify and analyse the research breadth of HPWS research in the service context across the world, so that a statistical and analytical comprehensive overview of the research and suggestions for future directions can be provided. A portfolio of 262 articles was extracted from the Scopus database and various bibliometric techniques were used to analyse the collected research articles using "R" programming with biblioshiny web interface. The bibliometric results revealed the dynamics of research trends in HPWS service context studies, the most influential publications, authors, sources, the most productive countries, and affiliations. The citation analysis revealed the most cited scientific publications, and the countries from which most citations were received. Likewise, the thematic analysis revealed the underlying themes and patterns of HPWS service context studies that emerged with time. In such ways, this study contributes to the literature by depicting the intellectual landscape of HPWS research in the service context, that will be useful to the researchers, academicians, practitioners, policy makers and funding agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The devastating impact of COVID-19 on businesses has led to the redefinition of workforce resilience. This study hence explores workforce resilience factors that will be important in the post-COVID-19 era. It investigates whether these factors perform differently in the manufacturing vs. the service sector and in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) vs. large firms. Sixty-five firms were studied in Malaysia and analyzed through Rasch modelling. The results indicate that three workforce resilience factors (positive thinking, sense of responsibility, and emotional control) are difficult to overcome in the manufacturing sector. Regarding the SMEs and large firm contexts, six workforce resilience factors (positive thinking, differentiation, degree of involvement, sense of responsibility, cognitive processes, and innovation) are complicated for SMEs. In comparison, two workforce resilience factors (work–life balance and decision-making) are difficult for large firms. Capitalizing on these findings, managers in various organizations (manufacturing vs. service and SMEs vs. large firms) can adopt different strategies to leverage workforce resilience post-COVID. Moreover, government agencies can use these findings for policy-making when leading post-COVID-19 projects and initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite its high share in national energy demand, the tertiary sector is an undifferentiated residual in the energy balances of most countries. To develop effective policy measures for enhancing energy efficiency, policymakers need a sound understanding of how the energy demand is structured. To date, only a few studies assess energy demand in the tertiary sector quantitatively. This paper aims to close this gap by introducing an integrated model that transparently breaks down the energy demand according to statistical subsectors, energy carriers and end-uses. The model combines a technology-based bottom-up with a top-down approach and applies it to a case study on Germany based on survey data from companies. Model validity is analyzed using a set of indicators. The results for Germany show that the model is consistent with the national energy balance showing an aggregate deviation of only 1%. The results for 2019 indicate that electricity demand in Germany's tertiary sector is dominated by lighting (35%), information and communication technologies (33%) and the provision of mechanical energy (9%), while fuel demand is mainly due to space heating (78%), followed by mechanical energy (15%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: We aim to analyze the capital structure heterogeneity for manufacturing and service sector firms. Additionally, we analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the leverage adjustments of corporate firms. Design/methodology/approach: This study applies the two-step system generalized method of moments (system-GMM) and panel data of 1,115 manufacturing and 482 service sector firms listed with the Bombay Stock Exchange (S&P BSE) from 2010 to 2023. We developed and analyzed three models. Model 1 analyzes the leverage determinants and speed of adjustment (SOA) for the manufacturing and service sectors. Model 2 evaluates the leverage SOA for various sub-sectors, and Model 3 analyzes the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the leverage SOA. Findings: This study suggests the three following. First, the direction of leverage determinants suggests that manufacturing firms are highly tangible. In contrast, service sector firms are high-growth firms and recorded a higher SOA (12.01%) than manufacturing (9.09%). Second, analyzing the leverage heterogeneity, we found that SOA varies across the sub-sectors. For manufacturing, food and beverage sub-sector recorded the highest SOA (12.58%), while consumer durables reported the lowest (6.38%). Communication recorded the highest (24.15%) for services, while industrial services recorded the lowest (11.18%). Third, firms across sectors and sub-sectors increased their SOA during COVID-19 pandemic. Research limitations/implications: This in-depth analysis of leverage heterogeneity for different sectors and subsectors will assist policymakers, corporate managers and other stakeholders in making agile financial decisions. Originality/value: The analysis of leverage heterogeneity for the manufacturing and service sector from the emerging Indian economy marks a novel contribution to existing literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Women-led entrepreneurial startups play a crucial role in fostering a sustainable future. These startups have the potential to provide innovative solutions. However, women entrepreneurs in Pakistan face socio-economic challenges like unemployment, gender inequality, and environmental deterioration. Even though women are underrepresented in the workforce, entrepreneurship is essential for developing sustainable practices. This research explores the contributions that women entrepreneurs can make to sustainability, the obstacles and possibilities that exist, as well as the requirements for changes in policies and regulations to accomplish sustainable development goals. This study utilizes a qualitative approach and focuses on conducting semi-structured interviews with 20 Pakistani women entrepreneurs in the service sector industry. Subsequently, thematic analysis was employed. The study provides recommendations for Pakistani policymakers and stakeholders to enhance the efficiency of entrepreneurship to promote sustainable development.

In the context of the turbulence of the global economy, the relevance of research aimed at determining the ability to ensure the sustainable development of national economies within the current model of global economic development is increasing. The purpose of this study is to obtain data characterizing the development potential of national economies. The article analyzes the impact of globalization on the dynamics of development of the leading national economies in the ranking of countries in terms of GDP at PPP with a population of more than 50 million people. At the same time, the following characteristics were studied: labor productivity, the level of debt burden, the level of consumption of industrial products and services in the domestic market, the standard of living of the population, the ratio of income of the population and the level of per capita consumption. It is shown that in the analyzed countries the total per capita consumption is greater than per capita GDP. It was revealed that the differentiation of the debt burden in various segments of the economy is due to the difference in the dynamics of labor productivity. It is shown that within the framework of the current models of national economies, the conditions for the generation of structural problems and the decline in the level of consumption and the quality of life of the population have been formed.

Tom Nairn once suggested that making a new nation always entails making a new class. This observation by one of Scotland's most influential intellectuals from the long era of campaigning for a Scottish parliament is used here as the starting point for investigating how the social basis of views about Scotland's governing system has evolved since the 1990s. The consolidation of support for the system that was established in 1999, and the growth of support for independence since then, may be understood, in part, as a consequence of the growth of a new social class, composed predominantly of graduates from the massively expanded system of higher education who are employed in the burgeoning service sector of the economy. The support for independence has been especially marked among those graduates who work in that part of the service sector that consists of public services such as education, health and government itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two important aspects of service sector growth in India in the post-1991 reform period from the demand side have been identified in the literature. Ghose (2015) suggests that the rapid service demand expansion has been driven by the rich, who have disproportionately benefited from the information and communication technology (ICT)-based service boom. Basu and Das (2017) argue that service spending by the poorer section also rose, and the service demand expansion is partly a result of the coercive nature of privatised service expansion. This article examines these two critical aspects in greater detail using the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) consumer expenditure surveys from 1993–94, 2004–05 and 2011–12. The article finds clear evidence to show that the service expenditure in India was dominated by the top 20% of Indian households. Even as bottom 20% devoted larger household budget share to services over time, their share in aggregate service expenditure remained marginal. State per capita income, servicification of output, social expenditure by the government, urbanisation and changing nature of the economy post liberalisation are found to be important factors associated with variation in household service expenditure share across quintile classes. The relationships of these factors with service expenditure share differ across expenditure quintiles. Further, service expenditure elasticity estimates by decile classes indicate more than unit elasticity for various services over time, depicting non-saturating demand for services. The decile-wide rise in demand for services during this period, especially for the poorer households, is possibly due to a complex mechanism involving necessity, aspirations and enhanced access to new services and may not fit into the binary of discretion versus involuntary spending. JEL Codes: O1, L16, L80, D30, D12 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expenditures on innovative activities, including R&D, play a key role in introducing innovations and consequently in the level of innovativeness. The aim of the research was to assess the level of innovative activity in the service sector in the Member States of the European Union (EU), in terms of incurred expenditure and achieved effects. To achieve the given aim various methods were used, including: monographic method, analysis and criticism of the literature, index and statistical analyses. The implementation of the assumed goal was carried out on the basis of two groups of indicators — effects and expenditure incurred on innovative activities. The research procedure was carried out in three stages: detailed assessment of the indicators, identification of similarities within the studied countries and determination of correlations occurring in them, and assessment of the synthetic Perkal's indicator regarding outlays and effects. The results of the research provided information on the level of the use of inputs in relation to the effects in the service sector of individual EU countries. Countries ranked high in the innovativeness ranking (Denmark, France) are characterized by higher outlays and the effects achieved as a result of them, as well as show favorable or neutral relations between them. A high level of effects in relation to the expenditure was also observed in Malta, Spain, and Croatia. The results of the research constitute valuable information on the effectiveness of the use of expenditure on innovative activities, especially significant from the point of view of service entities from countries with a low level of innovative activity. These enterprises should draw on good practices and experience and even try to cooperate in the creation of innovations with companies from countries with a high level of innovative activity. Consequently, such practices will contribute to a more dynamic and sustainable development of innovativeness in the service sector of all EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the relationship between entrepreneurial culture and innovative work behaviour of the employees in Indian service sector organisations. Based on responses collected from 203 Indian service sector employees, the study examines the impact of the factors constituting entrepreneurial culture, namely, management support, work discretion/ autonomy, rewards, time availability and organisational boundaries on their innovative work behaviour. Multiple regression analysis has been used to study this relationship. The results show that work discretion, time availability and reward/reinforcement had a significant positive impact on innovative work behaviour. On the other hand, management support and organisational boundaries did not significantly affect innovative work behaviour. This study assists managers in understanding the factors which are the facilitators and inhibitors of innovative work behaviour among employees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The present study, by using signaling perspective aims to investigate short-term valuation impact of rebranding announcements (with name change) on stock performance of 160 service firms listed on NSE NIFTY-500 over the period of 2000–2019. Design/methodology/approach: An event study methodology is used to estimate the cumulative abnormal returns (CARs) and its statistical significance is tested with both parametric and non-parametric test-statistics. Separate analysis has been conducted for firms with "major vs minor" and "restructuring vs non-restructuring" name change. Findings: Findings of the study suggest that rebranding decisions are negatively associated with abnormal returns around the announcement period indicating strong disapproval of name change event. In addition, investors formed strong adverse opinion for major name change firms as compared to minor name change firms. Further, restructured name change sample document larger negative drift than non-restructured sample. Practical implications: Findings offer substantial repercussions for shareholders who can make informed judgments about name change as a signal of reinventing brand identity. Managers should announce detailed rationale behind name change decision to market for enhancing corporate reputation. Originality/value: This study contributes to marketing-finance interface literature and is first to examine market reaction to name change of Indian service firms and moreover, made a distinction between major vs minor and restructured vs non-restructured name change events for these firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organisations in the hospitality sector face problems in meeting customers' demands of food items within an expected time and cost. However, some materials planning and procurement techniques may help process food items within acceptable lead times. The organisation needs to know what and how much it has on hand and what and how much to purchase from external sources. This paper applied the MRP and JIT concepts in a medium-sized restaurant named that creates various types of food items using raw materials from local and overseas sources. The paper has used actual data over ten weeks of sales of the most popular food items to forecast future demand using a moving average forecasting model. By using the forecast of end products and other information (viz. product structure, bill of materials, inventory on hand, lead-time), an MRP spreadsheet for various raw materials was generated, which would be supplied using the JIT scheduling to meet current and future customer demands within the expected time and at the lowest cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the asymmetric effects of international and domestic tourism on economic complexity worldwide. Despite the significant contributions of international and domestic tourism to a country's economic activities, their potential impacts on economic complexity remain underexplored in the literature. Using the Dynamic Fixed Effects Autoregressive Distributed Lag (DFE ARDL) model, this research estimates the short- and long-term effects of domestic and international tourism on economic complexity for 123 economies from 1995 to 2018. The empirical analysis reveals that domestic tourism spending has an insignificant negative impact on economic complexity in the short term. However, in the long run, it exerts a significant positive effect, suggesting that domestic tourism could be a powerful driver of the long-term geography of economic activities. In contrast, international tourism contributes to economic complexity in the short term, but its long-term impact is less significant. These findings affirm the instrumental role of tourism development in enhancing economic complexity and underscore the importance of a balanced approach to tourism development, considering its short‐ and long‐term effects on economic complexity. The study contributes to the literature by providing the first evidence of a connection between the tourism industry and economic complexity from a global perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to explore barriers to ABC adoption in the Tanzanian manufacturing and service sectors, notwithstanding its superiority over the traditional costing system. It went further to suggest solutions to such barriers by evaluating the mediating role of behavioral preferences on the causal relationship between the innovation attributes composite and ABC adoption. Based on the cross-sectional survey design, primary data were collected from a sample of 188 companies located in the Dar es Salaam, Arusha and Dodoma regions. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) revealed that none of the behavioral preferences positively mediated the causal relationship between the innovation attributes composite and ABC adoption at level 1. At level 2, the findings show that, it was the mediating effect by the perceived usefulness (p = 0. 0 0 1 ,  β = 0. 2 3 8) only that was statistically significant. With the exception of the perceived ease of use, the mediating effects by perceived usefulness (p = 0. 0 0 9 ,  β = 0. 0 1 8) and normative beliefs (p = 0. 0 4 5 ,  β = 0. 0 1 6) were further confirmed to be statistically significant at level 3 of adoption. Moreover, the mediating effects by the perceived ease of use (p = 0. 0 3 9 ,  β = 0. 1 2 3) and normative beliefs (p = 0. 0 0 5 ,  β = 0. 1 1 5) were found to be statistically significant at level 4 of adoption. At the highest level 5 of ABC adoption, it was the normative belief (p < 0. 0 0 1 ,  β = 0. 2 2 1) only that positively mediated the causal relationship between the innovation attributes composite and ABC adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aims to investigate the conditional relationships among sustainability implementation, brand awareness, brand attitude and brand loyalty through the lens of transformative service research (TSR). The research also aims to explain how brand loyalty moderates the mediated effect of brand awareness and attitude in the context of social and environmental sustainability initiatives. Design/methodology/approach: Using both primary and secondary data sources from 31 prominent service companies and their 6,891 customers, this paper investigates the impact of sustainability practices and brand awareness on customer attitude. The paper also examines the moderated mediation effect of brand loyalty, explaining how it alters brand attitudes in the context of sustainability implementation. Finally, the study conducts a comparative analysis of how environmental and social shape brand attitudes in loyal customers. Findings: Sustainability implementation has a negative impact on both brand awareness and customer attitude. However, this negative influence is mitigated for highly brand-loyal customers, resulting in a positive brand attitude. Further, the comparative analysis reveals that social implementation positively influences brand attitude in high-loyalty contexts. Research limitations/implications: This research uses subjective judgments of researchers regarding companies' sustainability practices, combining them with customer attitudes gathered through survey questionnaires. Additionally, the data set comprises data from 31 large service companies, potentially limiting the generalizability of findings to large service companies. Nevertheless, this paper extends TSR into the realm of sustainability and branding. Practical implications: The positive outcomes of sustainability implementation practices are most pronounced when customer loyalty toward a brand is strong. Social implementation has a more potent effect on brand attitude, particularly among loyal customers. Companies can tailor their sustainability efforts more effectively. Originality/value: With the lens of TSR, this research deepens our understanding of how sustainability affects consumer psychology but also offers a methodological advancement by using advanced statistical models and a variety of data sources. The distinctiveness of this research is also highlighted in the examination of how environmental and social sustainability initiatives influence brand attitude, especially among customers who exhibit strong brand loyalty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper documents the role of skill training centres in Bengaluru, India, in the production of a peripatetic and precarious workforce for India's new service economy. It describes how semi-educated youth from disadvantaged rural backgrounds are recruited for short-term training courses, which are promoted as a route to economic mobility, but are then placed in undesirable low-end and low-paid urban service jobs. Because the employment offered rarely matches their expectations or aspirations, graduates of training programmes often quit within a few weeks, returning to their home villages or searching for other job opportunities. The findings of the study suggest that skill training centres, rather than fulfilling their expressed goals of lifting rural youth out of poverty, contribute to the creation of a footloose and insecure workforce – thus catering to the requirements of organised service industries rather than the needs of unemployed youth. The paper contributes to current debates on youth unemployment, skill development, and labour precarity in the Global South. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the mediating effect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) on the link between green transformational leadership (GTL) and task performance. We collected the time‐lagged data from employees in Chinese hospitality industry. Further, we used regression analysis for testing. We found that GTL has a direct relationship with task performance. Also CSR mediates the positive link between GTL and performance. We highlighted the key relationship of CSR concept in linking GTL with workers task performance in hotel industry. Our study showed that supervisor leadership style can help the firm to engage in sustainability practices which enable workers to improve their performance. Literature on CSR calls for more research to explore about the causes and consequences of it. Responding to those calls, we proposed and tested a model wherein GTL links with CSR and thus affects workers performance. Implications and future research directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human development can be defined as the process of enriching the basic freedoms, capabilities and opportunities of individuals with the aim of improving their general well-being. This concept includes the people's knowledge, abilities and skills enrichment, the expansion of their possibilities of choice, the encouragement of freedoms and the human rights enjoyment as wider determinants of the societal development. This article is devoted to the study of the impact of some economic and environmental factors on the Human Development Index (HDI) in nine selected countries of Southeast Europe in the period from 2006 to 2019. In addition to the presented HDI calculation methodology, the article also uses the Cross-sectional Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) estimation technique, which indicated a positive and significant impact of the living standard, but at the same time a negative and significant impact of industrial development and the service sector on the HDI. On the other hand, a negative and significant impact of renewable energy sources is also observable, which suggests that decision-makers should encourage appropriate measures, innovations and investments in renewable energy sources more intensively with the aim of boosting further human development and environmental protection.

Customer tolerance refers to the forbearing and understanding manner in which customers deal with service failures. In the service industry, where mistakes are inevitable, it is beneficial for businesses to have tolerant customers. For this reason, it is necessary to learn how tolerance occurs in customers. To that end, the article examines the effect of customer-company fit (CC Fit) on customer tolerance based on the idea that customers will be tolerant to businesses that are compatible with their values. We also examine the moderating role of gender in the effect of customer-company fit on tolerance. The relationship between the variables in the research is based on the congruity theory that suggests that customers are oriented towards fit-seeking and, when perceiving congruence, they will exhibit positive attitudes and behaviours. In the study, which has a quantitative design, the data were obtained from 231 customers of restaurants in a province of Turkey, reached by convenience sampling method. The hypotheses were tested using the PROCESS macro for SPSS. The analysis results reveal that СС fit positively affects customer tolerance. Therefore, it can be inferred that when service failures are encountered, customers who perceive fit with the business can tolerate the failure. Another finding of the study is that gender has a moderating role in the effect of customer-company fit on customer tolerance. Accordingly, male customers in particular turned more to tolerance behaviour with the perception of fit.

he article discusses the issues of intersectoral interaction both in Ukraine and in the world to determine the prospects for its development in the context of the network economy. It is proved that the level of development of the entertainment industry is an important indicator of the socioeconomic situation. It is found that there is a traditional approach to determining the composition of participants in the entertainment industry, according to which it includes enterprises whose main activity is aimed at meeting human needs in entertainment, impressive events, sports and cultural-educational institutions. However, this approach does not take into account the close relationship between the entertainment industry and other sectors of the economy, because there is a certain interdependence between their development. The current trends in the development of the entertainment industry in Ukraine and in the world are considered. The major ones are globalization, digitalization and intersectoral cooperation. The circumstances influencing the creation of network organizational structures in the sphere of entertainment are analyzed, namely: active development of information technologies; growth in the pace of sales of products and services; dynamism of the external environment, etc. The article indicates relevance of inquiries with the help of modern means of collecting and analyzing information related to the entertainment industry in times of crisis. The relevance of the entertainment sector for Ukrainian society with slight deviations in seasonality and a significant decline in activity at the beginning of the full-scale military invasion is proved. Based on the results of the study, a classification of models of relationships according to the level of impact on the entertainment industry has been developed. Three main levels have been identified: the level of the entertainment industry, the level of the creative economy, and the level of the service sector in general. On their basis, three models of intersectoral interaction in the field of entertainment have been developed: integrated, network and outsourcing models. The results of this study are the creation of the subject field of the entertainment industry, as well as the development on its basis of models of intersectoral interaction in the entertainment sector. In addition, further directions of research in the entertainment industry are outlined for a future more detailed analysis of the effectiveness of the presented models in the development of the entertainment industry.

Despite its high share in national energy demand, the tertiary sector is an undifferentiated residual in the energy balances of most countries. To develop effective policy measures for enhancing energy efficiency, policymakers need a sound understanding of how the energy demand is structured. To date, only a few studies assess energy demand in the tertiary sector quantitatively. This paper aims to close this gap by introducing an integrated model that transparently breaks down the energy demand according to statistical subsectors, energy carriers and end-uses. The model combines a technology-based bottom-up with a top-down approach and applies it to a case study on Germany based on survey data from companies. Model validity is analyzed using a set of indicators. The results for Germany show that the model is consistent with the national energy balance showing an aggregate deviation of only 1%. The results for 2019 indicate that electricity demand in Germany’s tertiary sector is dominated by lighting (35%), information and communication technologies (33%) and the provision of mechanical energy (9%), while fuel demand is mainly due to space heating (78%), followed by mechanical energy (15%).

Workers in the low-wage service sector represent a sociodemographically heterogeneous and particularly vulnerable group in terms of job security, job quality and health implications. However, organizational inclusion research has largely neglected this group. In contrast, this article builds on a qualitative study of a Dutch aircraft cleaning company in order to assess the 'inclusivity of inclusion approaches' for less privileged groups of employees. By reconstructing how managers and cleaners draw/rework boundaries, we identify certain configurations of inclusion and exclusion that can unfold more or less 'inclusive' consequences for historically disadvantaged group members, and more or less exclusionary repercussions for particularly privileged and/or majority group members. We stress the need to say goodbye to a linear narrative of organizations becoming 'inclusive as such'. Furthermore, we argue that the presence of decent working and employment conditions and the absence of steep differences in those conditions between groups represent the 'silent foundation' of creating inclusivity. Consequently, we ask: does inclusion research reach its 'natural limits' by tiptoeing around the topic of equality? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the relationship between the services sector and Ecuadorian economic growth using cointegration and causality econometric techniques from 1990-2018. The results indicate that services as a whole, particularly trade and transportation, positively impact economic growth in the long run. However, in the short term, services as a whole have a negative effect, which may be explained by the continuous deterioration of their productivity. Meanwhile, there is a causality effect ranging from trade to economic growth, and from GDP per capita to services as a whole and transportation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]