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Objective: Sclerodermus wasps are important biocontrol agents of a class of wood borers. Bacterial symbionts influence the ecology and biology of their hosts in a variety of ways, including the formation of life-long beneficial or detrimental parasitic infections. However, only a few studies have explored the species and content of the symbionts in the Sclerodermus species. Methods: Here, a high-throughput sequencing study of the V3-V4 region of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene revealed a high level of microbial variety in four Sclerodermus waps, and their diversities and functions were also predicted. Results: The three most prevalent phyla of microorganisms in the sample were Firmicutes, Bacteroides, and Proteus. The KEEG pathways prediction results indicated that the three pathways with the highest relative abundances in the S. sichuanensis species were translation, membrane transport, and nucleotide metabolism. These pathways differed from those observed in S. guani, S. pupariae, and S. alternatusi, which exhibited carbohydrate metabolism, membrane transport, and amino acid metabolism, respectively. Bacteroides were found to be abundant in several species, whereas Wolbachia was the most abundant among S. sichuanensis, with a significant negative correlation between temperature and carriage rate. Conclusions: These results offer insights into the microbial communities associated with the bethylid wasps, which is crucial for understanding how to increase the reproductive capacity of wasps, enhance their parasitic effects, and lower cost in biocontrol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The flat wasps genus, Pristepyris Kieffer is reported for the first time from Türkiye based on the identification of Pristepyris masii (Soika, 1933). Now, with this new record, the species number of Bethylidae from Türkiye has increased to ten. Additionally, new data are presented for Epyris niger Westwood, 1832, Sclerodermus ephippius (Saunders, 1881) and Pristocera depressa (Fabricius, 1804), which were previously recorded from Turkey. All taxa are morphologically illustrated and their geographical distribution in Türkiye and in the World is also provided.

The flat wasps genus, Pristepyris Kieffer is reported for the first time from Türkiye based on the identification of Pristepyris masii (Soika, 1933). Now, with this new record, the species number of Bethylidae from Türkiye has increased to ten. Additionally, new data are presented for Epyris niger Westwood, 1832, Sclerodermus ephippius (Saunders, 1881) and Pristocera depressa (Fabricius, 1804), which were previously recorded from Turkey. All taxa are morphologically illustrated and their geographical distribution in Türkiye and in the World is also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extremely female-biased sex ratios of parasitoid wasps in multiple-foundress groups challenges evolutionary theory which predicts diminishing bias as foundress numbers increase. Recent theory based on foundress cooperation has achieved qualitative rather than quantitative success in explaining bias among parasitoids in the genus Sclerodermus. Here, we develop an explanation, expanding the theory of local mate competition, based on the observation that male production seems dominated by some foundresses within groups. Two sex ratio effects arise from such reproductive dominance: an immediate effect via suppression of male production, and a long-term evolutionary response to reproductive skew. We analyze the outcome of these effects at the individual and group level, the latter being more readily observable. Three model scenarios are analyzed: (1) random killing of developing sons in a group by all foundresses, without reproductive skew, (2) the development of reproductive dominance by some foundresses after sex allocation decisions by all foundresses have been implemented, and (3) reproductive dominance within foundress groups before sex allocation decisions are implemented. The 3 scenarios have subtly different implications for sex ratio evolution, with Models 2 and 3 being novel additions to theory, showing how reproductive dominance can alter the outcome of sex ratio evolution. All models match observations in their outcomes better than other recently proposed theory, but Models 2 and 3 are closest to observations in their underlying assumptions. Further, Model 2 shows that differential offspring mortality after parental investment can influence the primary sex ratio even when random with respect to parental and offspring characters, but targeted at entire clutches. The novel models are solved for both diploid and haplodiploid genetic systems, and confirmed with simulations. Overall, these models provide a feasible explanation for the extremely female-biased sex ratios produced by multi-foundress groups and expand the scope of local mate competition theory to consider reproductive dominance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the parasitoid genus Sclerodermus, multiple foundresses produce and care for communal broods on large hosts, which can lead to greater reproductive success for group members than attempting to reproduce alone.We explore the consequences of foundress group size on the benefits of cooperative brooding and on brood sex ratios by providing groups of 10–55 foundresses with a single host and no alternative reproductive options.Within this range, increasing foundress group size leads to increasingly common failure in brood production and diminished per capita success. Group production of adult offspring declines once foundress number reaches around 25.Brood failure is usually at the early developmental stages, and current evidence suggests that there may be competition among foundresses for oviposition sites, possibly involving reproductive dominance and ovicide, which also delays initial brood production. Once broods become established, their rate of development is enhanced by large foundress numbers.The sex ratios of broods are very strongly female biased, irrespective of the foundress number. As this bias is not easily explained by standard models of local mate competition or by a recent model of local resource enhancement, we suggest an explanation based on control of sex allocation by a minority of dominant foundresses, which monopolise the production of adult males. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Sclerodermus wasps are important biocontrol agents of a class of wood borers. Bacterial symbionts influence the ecology and biology of their hosts in a variety of ways, including the formation of life-long beneficial or detrimental parasitic infections. However, only a few studies have explored the species and content of the symbionts in the Sclerodermus species., Methods: Here, a high-throughput sequencing study of the V3-V4 region of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene revealed a high level of microbial variety in four Sclerodermus waps, and their diversities and functions were also predicted., Results: The three most prevalent phyla of microorganisms in the sample were Firmicutes, Bacteroides, and Proteus. The KEEG pathways prediction results indicated that the three pathways with the highest relative abundances in the S . sichuanensis species were translation, membrane transport, and nucleotide metabolism. These pathways differed from those observed in S . guani , S . pupariae , and S . alternatusi , which exhibited carbohydrate metabolism, membrane transport, and amino acid metabolism, respectively. Bacteroides were found to be abundant in several species, whereas Wolbachia was the most abundant among S. sichuanensis , with a significant negative correlation between temperature and carriage rate., Conclusions: These results offer insights into the microbial communities associated with the bethylid wasps, which is crucial for understanding how to increase the reproductive capacity of wasps, enhance their parasitic effects, and lower cost in biocontrol., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Kang, Wang, Gong, Tang and Wei.)

We develop a game-theoretic model to explore the question of whether two animals should cooperate in the dangerous activity of obtaining a rich and essential resource. We consider variation in the risks incurred to individuals and in how the activities of the two animals interact to influence the probability of success. We also consider that the animals may be relatives and thus share evolutionary interests. The model is general and can, for instance, be applied to mammalian predators attempting to capture and subdue large and dangerous prey or to female parasitoid wasps that attack and, if successful, paralyse aggressive hosts that then provide the only feeding resource for their offspring. This minimal model of cooperation contains three dimensionless parameters: vulnerability (the ratio between the average time for a lone attacker to subdue the defending resource and the average time for the defender to fatally strike the attacker), the dilution ratio (the extent to which attack by animals acting in tandem reduces a defender's ability to kill its attackers) and the relatedness between the potential attackers. The model predicts that higher values of all three parameters favour cooperation and that for small values cooperation is not evolutionarily stable. Cooperation can arise from an ancestral state of non-cooperation if values of all parameters are sufficiently high but cannot arise among non-relatives, irrespective of other parameter values. Once cooperation has emerged in a population, it can be maintained among non-relatives at modest values of dilution ratio and vulnerability. We discuss these general predictions in particular relation to the parasitoid genus Sclerodermus , in which multiple females may attack unusually large and aggressive hosts and in which host attack behaviour is mediated by kinship. • Essential resources may be rich but also dangerous to acquire. • Foragers may cooperate or defect, exploiting the actions of cooperators. • Game theory predicts cooperation when risks are high and cooperation is synergistic. • Relatedness is essential for cooperation to evolve in populations of defectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reverse chemical ecology approaches based on the recognition and transport function of odorant binding proteins (OBPs) have been used to screen behaviorally active compounds of insects. In the first place, behaviorally active compounds from Sclerodermus sp., an important ectoparasite of Monochamus alternatus Hope, were screened by SspOBP7. The Fluorescence quenching assays revealed that only six of 19 ligands that had binding affinities in fluorescence competition-binding assays formed complexes with SspOBP7. Pursuing this further, two non-polar ligands, terpinolene and (+)-α-longipinene showed strong attractant activities for Sclerodermus sp. The pH change could lead to conformational transition of SspOBP7 from one state to another, which results in low binding affinities at low pH. Finally, a mutational analysis of the SspOBP7 binding cavity proved that changing the cavity had a greater effect on non-polar ligands, and the specific recognition of ligands by SspOBP7 might depend mainly on the appropriate shapes of the cavity and ligands. The most obvious finding to emerge from this work is that the use of fluorescence quenching to study the binding mechanism of OBPs could aid reverse chemical ecology approaches by narrowing the scope of candidate behaviorally active compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sclerodermus pupariae Yang et Yao (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) is used as a potential biocontrol agent for several buprestid and cerambycid larvae. This study aimed to enhance the efficiency of mass-rearing of this parasitoid by investigating the fitness gain of this bethylid wasp, including the proportion of successful parasitism and development, brood size, sex ratio, proportion of winged female offspring, body size and longevity of female offspring, under eight different maternal parasitoid density treatments using Thyestilla gebleri Faldermann as host in the laboratory. The results indicated that the foundress densities did not affect the parasitism or emergence rate of this parasitoid. Brood size of the parasitoids increased significantly when the number of maternal wasps ranged from one to four. However, further increases in foundress number did not affect the parasitoid brood size. The sex ratios of S. pupariae were always female-biased. The proportions of male in the progeny colonies were <10% throughout all experimental treatments. The percentage of winged female progeny was not significantly influenced by the density of adult maternal parasitoids. Body sizes of parasitoids significantly declined with increasing maternal parasitoid densities. Although the parasitoid body size reduced when maternal wasp number was higher, it could be compromised by the relatively higher number of female offspring produced. Further, more than 70% of the parasitoids remained alive when they were stored at 12°C for four months throughout the experiments. These findings suggest that exposure of four female wasps to a single host larva would result in the highest fitness of S. pupariae. Our findings might provide a new approach to enhance the efficiency of mass-rearing of this bethylid wasp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reproductive performance of Sclerodermus brevicornis (Kieffer), a bethylid wasp native to Europe, was evaluated on three species of factitious hosts. These are longhorn beetles which have recently invaded Europe from Asia: Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky), Anoplophora chinensis (Forster) and Psacothea hilaris hilaris (Pascoe) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Sclerodermus brevicornis attacked all three species, but offspring only developed to maturity on medium and large sized host larvae. Host species influenced the duration of parasitoid development and the number of offspring maturing, both were greatest on A. glabripennis , with up to 373 adult parasitoids emerging from a single host. The sex ratios of S. brevicornis broods were strongly female biased ( ca . 9% males). We conclude that S. brevicornis has the potential to be efficiently mass-reared and actively deployed in the biological control of invasive longhorn beetles. Further progress should be encouraged by the successful use of other species of Sclerodermus against beetle pests in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Amazon Forest is a hotspot of biodiversity harboring an unknown number of undescribed taxa. Inventory studies are urgent, mainly in the areas most endangered by human activities such as extensive dam construction, where species could be in risk of extinction before being described and named. In 2015, intensive studies performed in a few locations in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest revealed three new species of the genus Scleroderma: S. anomalosporum, S. camassuense and S. duckei. The two first species were located in one of the many areas flooded by construction of hydroelectric dams throughout the Amazon; and the third in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, a protected reverse by the INPA. The species were identified through morphology and molecular analyses of barcoding sequences (Internal Transcribed Spacer nrDNA). Scleroderma anomalosporum is characterized mainly by the smooth spores under LM in mature basidiomata (under SEM with small, unevenly distributed granules, a characteristic not observed in other species of the genus), the large size of the basidiomata, up to 120 mm diameter, and the stelliform dehiscence; S. camassuense mainly by the irregular to stellate dehiscence, the subreticulated spores and the bright sulfur-yellow colour, and Scleroderma duckei mainly by the verrucose exoperidium, stelliform dehiscence, and verrucose spores. Description, illustration and affinities with other species of the genus are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To explore the mechanisms by which the wasp Scleroderma sichuanensis Xiao regulates the physiology and biochemistry of its host, effects of S. sichuanensis venom and parasitism on host the Tenebrio molitor L. pupae were examined. Significant differences in nutritional content were noted between parasitized and non-parasitized pupae and between venom- and phosphate buffered saline-injected pupae. When pupae were injected with venom, the fat body could not be disintegrated into granules; however, when pupae were parasitized, fat-body disintegration occurred. Electrophoresis showed no differences in hemolymph protein content between parasitized pupae and those injected with venom, indicating that the wasp did not have narrow-spectrum peptides. These findings confirmed that S. sichuanensis was a typical idiobiont ectoparasitoid wasp, and that nutrient regulation was similar between idiobiont and koinobiont wasps. The strong similarities between the two treatments suggest that venom injection is a major factor responsible for changes in host nutrient content. The wasp fed mainly on reducing sugars, free amino acids, and fat-body tissues; larval fat bodies were derived from hemolymph and from host tissue. Our findings suggest that lipid catabolism might be accelerated, and that lipid biosynthesis might be inhibited, when host pupae are parasitized or injected with venom. In addition to venom, physiological and biochemical changes that occur during the parasitic process might be caused by venom, ovarian proteins, saliva, or secretions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between body size and fitness in parasitoid wasps has several effects on parasitic ability, reproductive behavior in female wasps, and progeny fitness. Female wasps with various body sizes were obtained by mass–rearing a gregarious ectoparasitoid, Sclerodermus pupariae, which is one of the excellent parasites to control the larvae and pupae of Buprestidae and Cerambycidae. We investigated the effects of body size of adult females introduced on Thyestilla gebleri (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) larvae on their paralysis time, pre–oviposition period, oviposition period and fecundity, and the related fitness of their offspring. Results showed that small female wasps needed more time to paralyze a host and had a higher mortality rate than large female wasps. More offspring were produced by large female wasps than by small female wasps, and the percentage and body size of female offspring was not affected by maternal body size. The duration of the egg stage was not affected by foundress size, nor was that of the pupal stage, but the duration of the larval stage and generation time of small female wasps was longer than that of large females. Our findings suggest that the parasitic fitness and offspring performance are affected by maternal size, and there is need to choose reasonable body size of female wasps, to optimally utilize mass rearing and to control target pests with the lowest mortality cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gregarious idiobiont ectoparasitoid, Sclerodermus pupariae Yang et Yao, is a natural enemy that parasitizes buprestid and cerambycid beetle larvae in China. In a recent laboratory study of mass–reared female parasitoids on larvae of the substitute host, Thyestilla gebleri , the subsequent offspring were widely released to control target pests. To develop cost–effective techniques for rearing parasitoids, and improve the parasitic efficiency of Sclerodermus pupariae , several parasitoid–host ratios have been investigated. However, the mechanism whereby increasing the density of inoculated female wasps on a host affects female parasitoid fitness (adult performance and progeny developmental duration) remains unclear. In the present study, we examined the influence of parasitoid density (one to eight female wasps per host) on the time to first attack, paralyzing time, pre–oviposition period and oviposition period of foundresses and developmental duration of offspring. We showed that the time to first attack, paralyzing time, pre–oviposition period and oviposition period of foundresses were significantly negatively associated with parasitoid density, but that developmental duration of progeny was only affected at the larval stage. An increase in the parasitoid density to more than three female wasps per host had no significant influence on the investigated parameters. Our results suggest that host nutrition was adequate, and intraspecific interaction enhanced the parasitic efficiency of wasps sharing a single host. Furthermore, it is known that a suitable parasitoid–host ratio can play an important role in promoting mutually beneficial behaviors which enhance adult performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Similar to venom found in most venomous animals, parasitoid venoms contain a complex cocktail of proteins with potential agrichemical and pharmaceutical use. Even though parasitoids are one of the largest group of venomous animals, little is known about their venom composition. Recent few studies revealed high variated venom composition existing not only in different species but also between closely related strains, impling that increasing information on the venom proteins from more greater diversity of species of different taxa is key to comprehensively uncover the complete picture of parasitoid venom. Here, we explored the major protein components of the venom of ectoparasitic ant-like bethylid wasp, Scleroderma guani by an integrative transcriptomic-proteomic approach. Illumina deep sequencing of venom apparatus cDNA produced 49,873 transcripts. By mapping the peptide spectral data derived from venom reservoir against these transcripts, mass spectrometry analysis revealed ten main venom proteins, including serine proteinase, metalloprotease, dipeptidyl peptidase IV, esterase, antithrombin-III, acid phosphatase, neural/ectodermal development factor IMP-L2 like protein, venom allergen 3, and unknown protein. Interestingly, one serine proteinase was firstly identified with rarely high molecular weight about 200 kDa in parasitoid venom. The occurrence of abundant acid phosphatase, antithrombin-III and venom allergen 3 demonstrated that S. guani venom composition is similar to that of social wasp venoms. All identified venom genes showed abundantly biased expression in venom apparatus, indicating their virulent functions involved in parasitization. This study shed light on the more better understanding of parasitoid venom evolution across species and will facilitate the further elucidation of function and toxicity of these venom proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last years, stings of Sclerodermus species in humans have been sporadically reported in Italy. In order to draw attention to these bethylid wasps of medical importance, we report the case of documentedSclerodermus sp. stings on the dorsum, abdomen, arms, and thighs of a 40-year-old man and his wife. The sting sites developed raised red itchy rash. The source of environmental contamination was identified in a worm-eaten sofa purchased from a used furniture dealer and placed in the living room about a month and half earlier. The lesions on the man and his wife rapidly healed within 3 to 4 days once they left the house and treatment for the lesions was instituted. Physicians, dermatologists, medical and public health entomologists, as well as specific categories of workers should be aware of the risk of exposure to Sclerodermus stings.

During the exploration of basidiomycetes of Pakistan, twenty gasteroid fungi were collected and identified from district Mansehra, Pakistan. Out of these, nine specimens represented different taxa; two belong to genera Geastrum and Lycoperdon, one each species belonged to genera Astraeus, Bovista, Phallus, Pisolithus, and Scleroderma. These gasteroid taxa have been identified, described and discussed. Among these, Phallus hadriani is a second report for Pakistan, and four gasteroid taxa are new records for District Mansehra. © 2014 Friends Science Publishers [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to verify some doubtful collections of Scleroderma Pers. species from Macedonia, 54 specimens were revised using morphological and molecular analyses. The 12 internal transcribed spacer of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITS nrDNA) sequences obtained in this study were compared with previously published sequences included in public databases. According to the barcoding sequences, some Macedonian Scleroderma specimens were confirmed to belong to 4 species: S. areolatum Ehrenb., S. bovista Fr., S. meridionale Demoulin & Malençon, and S. verrucosum (Vaill.) Pers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasitoids can encounter patches of hosts of varying sizes. Trade-offs may result in different developmental strategies and fitness characteristics in parasitoids., To explore developmental strategies and host suitability of a bethylid parasitoid, Sclerodermus pupariae, in relation to the size of oak long-horned beetle larvae, Massicus raddei, effects of host size on parasitoid fitness parameters were tested under laboratory conditions., Maternal parasitoids obtained lower rates of parasitism when inoculating small or large hosts due to early host death and parasitoid injury, respectively, indicating significant fitness costs associated with paralysing those host sizes. Host size was shown to have highly variable effects on selected fitness parameters. For maternal females, increasing initial host size led to increasing host handling time, and fertility exhibited a parabolic relationship with host size. The highest fertility was exhibited when parasitoids oviposited on medium-sized hosts., Host size effects were very apparent for parasitoid offspring, with the largest hosts producing later-emerging but larger females. Parasitoid offspring sex ratios in all host size classes were significantly female-biased, and exhibited a quadratic function with increasing host size. Assessment of host profitability revealed that medium-sized hosts presented the best fitness return for the parasitoids., The findings suggest that this bethylid parasitoid can achieve a compromise in optimisation of the two most important fitness functions when encountering an abundance of different-sized hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] The fall webworm was controlled by Chouioia cunea and HcNPV virus. [•] Monochamus alternatus was controlled by Sclerodermus sp. and Dastarcus helophoroides. [•] Dendroctonus valens was controlled by predator Rhizophagus grandis. [•] Massicus raddei was controlled by a special black light and two parasitoids. [•] Four new parasitoid species were founded parasitizing emerald ash borer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massicus raddei Blessig (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), also referred to as the oak long-horned beetle ( OLB), is a non-natural host for the generalist parasitoid Sclerodermus pupariae Yang et Yao (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae). To determine whether this generalist parasitoid might be a suitable agent for the control of OLB, the adaptive learning experience of adult female parasitoids to OLB larvae was investigated in the laboratory. A Y-tube olfactometer bioassay was used to examine the effects of adaptive learning experience on the foraging ability of parasitoids for OLB larvae. The results indicated that parasitoids were significantly attracted by the volatiles of ash bark, Fraxinus velutina, with emerald ash borer ( EAB), Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) larvae and larval frass, after exposure to ash bark mixed with EAB larval frass (learning condition A). In contrast, after exposure to oak bark, Quercus liaotungensis, mixed with OLB larval frass (learning condition C), parasitoids showed significant preference for the volatiles of oak bark with OLB larvae and larval frass. On the basis of the results of no-choice tests, we found that parasitoids exposed to learning condition C had greater paralysis efficiency and higher OLB larvae parasitism rates than those exposed to learning condition A or no experience. Furthermore, parasitoids fed on OLB larvae in learning condition C had significantly greater paralysis efficiency and higher OLB larvae parasitism rates than other parasitoids tested. Parasitoids fed on EAB larvae in learning condition A had the lowest paralysis efficiency and OLB larvae parasitism rates among the parasitoids tested. These findings suggested that adaptive learning significantly enhanced the ability of a generalist parasitoid to utilize a novel host. This may provide a new approach to controlling non-natural hosts using generalist parasitoids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Guarding behavior is an important activity in sub-social insects, and this behavior is believed to improve the survival of offspring. Sclerodermus harmandi (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) is one of most powerful epizoic parasitoid wasps, and it parasitizes Monochamus alternatus, a borer of wood and also the primary vector of the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. After laying eggs, S. harmandi exhibits sub-social behavior involving the female tending the clutch of eggs until emergence (guarding behavior). In this study, the benefits of this maternal care with regard to improvements in the survival of offspring were examined. During the developmental stages, only offspring in the egg and larval stages were sensitive to guarding behavior. A positive relationship between the survival of the offspring and the duration of guarding was detected with logistic regression analysis. A female replacement experiment demonstrated that multiparous S. harmandi stepmothers showed guarding behavior and that this behavior improved the survival of the immature offspring, whereas nulliparous stepmothers failed to exhibit the guarding behavior. These results indicate that S. harmandi females display maternal care and that this behavior improves the survival of offspring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new parasitoid reared from Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), Sclerodennus pupariae n. sp. (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), is described from China. S. pupariae was reared from A. planipennis in China attacking velvet ash (Fraxinus velutina Tort.), a tree native to North America. Life-history studies of S. pupariae in the field and laboratory indicated it is a gregarious idiobiont ectoparasitoid of pupa and larva ofA. planipennis and has up to five generations per year. Parasitism rate in the field was 13%. Adult wasps reared from single host pupa or mature larva ranged from 24 to 56 individuals. Based on laboratory rearing, the emerging adult female to male ratio was 22:1. The new parasitoid species has a high potential as a biocontrol agent for emerald ash borer. Diagnosis of the new species with comparisons to Sclerodermus harmandi (Buysson) and a key to Sclerodermus known in China are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Liming is a known forest management procedure used to amend nutrient-poor soils such as soils of acidic forests to rectify cation deficiencies and to restore soil pH. However, although this procedure is well known for its beneficial effect on the forest trees, its relative impact on the functional and taxonomic diversity of the soil bacterial communities has been poorly investigated. In this study, we characterized the ability of the soil bacteria to weather soil minerals and to hydrolyze chitin. A collection of 80 bacterial strains was isolated from the Scleroderma citrinum ectomycorrhizosphere and the adjacent bulk soil in two stands of mature beeches (Fagus sylvatica) developed on very acidic soil and presenting two levels of calcium (Ca) availability: a control plot as well as a plot amended with Ca in 1973. All the bacterial isolates were identified by partial 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis as members of the genera Burkholderia, Bacillus, Dyella, Kitasatospora, Micrococcus, Paenibacillus, Pseudomonas, and Rhodanobacter. Using a microplate assay for quantifying the production of protons and the quantity of iron released from biotite, we demonstrated that the bacterial strains from the amended plot harbored a significant higher mineral weathering potential that the ones isolated from the control plot. Notably, the weathering efficacy of the ectomycorrhizosphere bacterial isolates was significantly greater than that of the bulk soil isolates in the control treatment but not in the amended plot. These data reveal that forest management, here mineral amendment, can strongly affect the structure of bacterial communities even over the long term. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Optimality models of host-parasitoid relationships have traditionally assumed that host quality increases as a function of host size at parasitism. However, trade-offs may play a crucial role in species evolution and should be found in hostparasitoid interactions where the host quality may differ between different sizes. Here, we investigated the effects of host size differences of Monochamus alternatus larva on foraging decisions, parasitism and related fitness in a gregarious ectoparasitoid, Sclerodermus harmandi. Two-choice and non-choice experiments were conducted with M. alternatus larvae to evaluate preference and performance of S. harmandi, respectively. Results from two-choice test showed that adult females prefer to attack large larvae rather than small larvae. In no-choice tests, adult females needed more time to paralyze large larvae than small larvae before laying eggs on the body surface of M. alternatus larvae and had lower survival and parasitism rate on those large larvae. Foraging decisions of S. harmandi led to the selection of the most profitable host size for parasitoid development, which showed more offspring gained on large M. alternatus larvae than on small larvae and got higher body weight on those large hosts. This study demonstrates the existence of trade-off occurring during hostparasitoids interactions according to host size related quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Females of Galodoxa torquata Nagy, 1974, from the Oriental region, are promptly recognized by the deeply incised and bifurcate posterior margin of the fourth metasomal sternite. Because of this unusual character Nagy (1974) established a subfamily to accommodate it, but a superficial examination indicates that this species might be better placed in the tribe Sclerodermini. In order to test the hypothesis, it is redescribed, illustrated, and cladistically compared with data in literature of representative species of almost all genera of Sclerodermini and three outgroup species. A total of 72 characters extracted from literature are evaluated. The analyses were executed with equally weighted parsimony and implied weighting. Both unweighted and implied weighting results support the placement of Galodoxa into the tribe Sclerodermini. The monotypic subfamily Galodoxinae is therefore treated as new synonym of the subfamily Epyrinae and the genus Galodoxa Nagy, 1974 is transferred to the tribe Sclerodermini. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hypothesis of the present study was that the termite mounds of Macrotermes subhyalinus (MS) (a litter–forager termite) were inhabited by a specific microflora that could enhance with the ectomycorrhizal fungal development. We tested the effect of this feeding group mound material on (i) the ectomycorrhization symbiosis between Acacia holosericea (an Australian Acacia introduced in the sahelian areas) and two ectomycorrhizal fungal isolates of Scleroderma dictyosporum (IR408 and IR412) in greenhouse conditions, (ii) the functional diversity of soil microflora and (iii) the diversity of fluorescent pseudomonads. The results showed that the termite mound amendment significantly increased the ectomycorrhizal expansion. MS mound amendment and ectomycorrhizal inoculation induced strong modifications of the soil functional microbial diversity by promoting the multiplication of carboxylic acid catabolizing microorganisms. The phylogenetic analysis showed that fluorescent pseudomonads mostly belong to the Pseudomonads monteillii species. One of these, P. monteillii isolate KR9, increased the ectomycorrhizal development between S. dictyosporum IR412 and A. holosericea. The occurrence of MS termite mounds could be involved in the expansion of ectomycorrhizal symbiosis and could be implicated in nutrient flow and local diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse trials with containerized Eucalyptus globulus and E. urophylla seedlings were made to determine effective inoculum spore densities (Scleroderma cepa from temperate Australia, and S. citrinum from sub-tropical China) and spore storage conditions (fresh spores or spores stored for 5 years at room temperature or at 4 °C; S. albidum, S. areolatum and S. cepa from Western Australia). Inoculation with 106 or 108 spores/seedling increased eucalypt growth by up to 46% in height and 42% in dry weight compared to non-inoculated seedlings at 12 weeks after inoculation. Mycorrhizal formation was poor at 102 spores/seeding. Spores stored at 4°C for 5 years were as effective in forming mycorrhizas as freshly collected spores when a standard density of 106 spores/seedling was applied. It is recommended that spore densities ⩾104 be used for inoculation of containerised eucalypts and that spores be stored at 4 °C until use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Non-pasteurized soil or soil-based rooting media are being used to raise eucalypts in nurseries in south China. It is unclear whether these practices are optimal for the growth of eucalypt plants or the development of ectomycorrhizal associations. Therefore, there is a need to optimize nursery practices to meet the demand for high quality seedlings and clonal lines of Eucalyptus urophylla and hybrids, for outplanting in the region. Inoculation with spores of ectomycorrhizal fungi is accepted as desirable due to potential yield benefits in the field. Previous studies have shown that spores of some collections of Scleroderma are vigorous colonizers on E. urophylla seedlings. These could be used in inoculation programs in China if nursery conditions were suitable for ectomycorrhizal development and the fungi persisted in the field. Therefore, effects of rooting medium and inoculation with Scleroderma on the growth of E. urophylla were examined in a nursery in south China. A complete randomized block design consisting of five rooting media and eight fungal inoculation (six fungi in non-sterile media, two uninoculated controls either in non-sterile or sterile media) was used. Four types of soil taken from eucalypt plantations in south China were compared to a potting mix with vermiculite, peat and sand. Spores of six Scleroderma taxa were taken from basidiomes collected from under eucalypt plantations in Western Australia and south China. Soil substrates significantly affected the growth of seedlings with large variation in both height and biomass. Seedlings grown in the potting mix were larger (90–220% in shoot height, and 110–420% in total dry weight) than those in soil. Inoculation with spores of Scleroderma to non-sterile soil generally promoted the growth of seedlings and their nutrient acquisition. Inoculation increased the growth of seedlings by 19–55% in shoot height and 25–41% in total biomass, compared to uninoculated plants in each soil. Although the ability to form ectomycorrhizas varied considerably between spore collections, most Scleroderma taxa vigorously colonized roots. However, the potting media significantly influenced the extent of colonization by Scleroderma. Some 58% of short roots were infected by Scleroderma in the potting mix, whilst only 12–18% of short roots were ectomycorrhizal in the granitic loam and the red clay. The three Australian collections generally colonized a larger proportion of short roots of plants than those from China origin, especially when plants were grown in the potting mix or lateritic loam. In conclusion, the potting mix was better than soil in promoting growth of plants and mycorrhization from Scleroderma spores, and five collections of Scleroderma were able to form ectomycorrhizas in non-pasteurized field soil under nursery conditions. The inoculant Scleroderma were able to out-compete indigenous mycorrhizal fungi in the rooting media. Soils collected from the field were not optimal for the growth of plants or ectomycorrhizal development under nursery conditions. These results challenge the current practices in eucalypt nurseries and following nursery practices are recommended to be modified: (i) due to the low diversity of compatible fungal symbionts in field soil, inoculation with tested ectomycorrhizal fungi, such as Scleroderma in this study, is recommended for eucalypts prior to outplanting. (ii) Low cost potting mix of suitable porosity and organic matter content should be explored as alternatives to soil. (iii) The lateritic loam may be used as rooting medium in eucalypt nurseries, whilst other three types of field soil are not recommended. (iv) Rooting media should not necessarily be pasteurized when raising mycorrhizal plants in eucalypt nurseries in south China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The type of Scleroderma stellatum from Brazil exhibits a sharp echinulate, dark brown peridium, and the type of S. bermudense from Bermuda has a peridium that is loosely woven and fibrillose, whitish to pale brownish. These characters indicate two independent species. This information is contrary to that of Guzmán in 1970, who interpreted S. bermudense to be a synonym of S. stellatum based on the similar spores. Scleroderma echinatum from Borneo and Panama, as recently discussed by Guzmán and Ovrebo, also has an echinulate, dark brown peridium and is a synonym of S. stellatum. All these fungi have a stellate dehiscence. New records of S. bermudense from the Greater Antilles and Mexico's Pacific Coast, and Veligaster nitidum from Virgin Islands also are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]