Search

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. is an African wild tree found in many countries across the continent. Its leaves, bark, root, and fruits are used in food, cosmetics, and traditional medicine. However, no systematic bibliometric review on S. birrea have been performed so far. This study covered publications made in 1986–2022 and investigated such bibliometric indicators as knowledge dynamics, links and structure, relevant journals, productive organizations, renowned authors, authoring patterns, national and international collaboration levels, etc. The bibliometric data on a total of 369 publications were downloaded from Scopus database and analyzed using the MS-Excel and VOSViewer software. The Scopus publications on S. birrea showed a versatile range in the interdisciplinary areas of research, with agricultural and biological sciences predominating. The Republic of South Africa was responsible for the largest number of citations. All in all, 63 countries published research on S. birrea in the specified time period, and the share of African countries was 65.43% of the total global research. Co-authorship and international collaboration were registered for six clusters. A total of 1114 researchers and 160 institutions actively contributed to S. birrea studies, with 37 having a minimum of five publications. Mapping of knowledge structure using the keyword co-occurrence revealed the related research areas. The Journal of Ethnopharmacology took the lead in terms of average citation. The co-citation analysis revealed some remarkable dynamics in S. birrea research. This bibliometric study provides a complete insight into S. birrea research development and publication patterns over the last 36 years.

Abdul Gafar Victoir Coulidiaty,1 Saamou Isaac Boni,2 Raogo Ouedraogo,1 Benjamin Kouliga Koama,2 Harouna Soré,3 Roland Nâg-Tiero Meda,2 Téné Marceline Yaméogo,4 Estelle Noëla Hoho Youl1 1Laboratoire de Développement du Médicament, Ecole Doctorale Sciences et Santé (ED2S), Université Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; 2Laboratoire de Recherche et d’Enseignement en Santé et Biotechnologies Animales, Université Nazi Boni, Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso; 3Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; 4Institut Supérieur des Sciences de la Santé, Université Nazi BONI, Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina FasoCorrespondence: Abdul Gafar Victoir Coulidiaty, Email gafarvictoir@gmail.comBackground: Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich). Hochst, popularly known as Morula, is a plant in the Anacardiaceae family. The bark, fruits, and leaves have traditionally been used to manage a variety of health conditions, most especially diabetes. Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of data and publications on the toxicity and safety of this plant.Purpose: The current study was designed to assess the acute and chronic toxicity of a hydro-ethanolic extract of Sclerocarya birrea in albino rats.Materials and Methods: Sclerocarya birrea was extracted using an 80– 20% hydro-ethanolic solution. For the acute toxicity study, female Wistar albino rats were treated with hydro-ethanolic leaf extract at a dose of 5000 mg/kg body weight and followed-up for 14 days. In the chronic toxicity study, 40 healthy Wistar albino rats were divided in 4 groups. The three treatment groups were administered the leaf hydro-ethanolic extract orally at dosages of 30, 150, and 1000 mg/kg once day for 90 days and the fourth group was a control group. Body and organs weights, haematological, serum biochemical, and histopathological parameters were measured at the end of the experiment.Results: Single-dose oral administration of hydro-ethanolic leaf extract of Sclerocarya birrea at 5000 mg/kg produced no mortality indicating the LD50 is greater than 5000 mg/kg body weight. Following 90 days of administration of a hydro-ethanolic extract of Sclerocarya birrea leaves, there was no significant change in body and organs weights. Furthermore, biochemical, haematological and histopathological parameters did not vary significantly.Conclusion: This data indicates neither acute or chronic toxicity in rats and is consistent with the widespread and long-term usage of Sclerocarya birrea in African traditional medicine.Keywords: Sclerocarya birrea, acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, diabetes

Sclerocarya birrea kernel volatile compounds and fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) from the Bubi district in Matabeleland North province of Zimbabwe were characterised by GC–MS. The volatile compounds of the oil include 65 different compounds from 24 distinct classes, dominated by 13 alcohols and 14 aldehydes (42%). Other classes include carboxylic acids, phenols, sesquiterpenes, lactones, pyridines, saturated fatty acids, ketones, and various hydrocarbons. The kernel oils revealed essential fatty acids such as polyunsaturated (α-linolenic and linoleic acids) and monounsaturated fatty acids (palmitic, palmitoleic, and oleic acids). Notably, oleic acid is the predominant fatty acid at 521.61 mg/g, constituting approximately 73% of the total fatty acids. Linoleic acid makes up 8%, and saturated fatty acids make up about 7%, including significant amounts of stearic (42.45 mg/g) and arachidic (3.46 mg/g) acids. These results validate the use of marula oils in food, pharmaceutical, and health industries, as well as in the multibillion USD cosmetics industry. Therefore, the potential applications of S. berria kernel oils are extensive, necessitating further research and exploration to fully unlock their capabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural woodlands provide a myriad of products and services that support community rural livelihoods through improving household income, food security, safety net, health and nutrition, leisure, ecotourism and outdoor recreation. This is more often realized among women in remote or rural areas, who for most of the time, live in poverty. This study is aligned with the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) 1 (No poverty) and 12 (responsible consumption and production). Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the potential and constraints of using Sclerocarya birrea kernels (morula) as a source of ecotourism to support livelihoods for members of a community-based Trust (CBO) in rural Botswana. The study was carried out in two villages of Seolwane and Matlhako in the central district of Botswana. Data for the study was collected from 102 members of the Trust using a semi-structured questionnaire and an interview guide for key informants. Additional information was gathered through participant observation during field work. The harvesters and producers comprised mostly of elderly women with an average age of 64 years. The net margin for kernel production for an average producer was profitable, and an ecotourism potential for morula project was rated high. Challenges facing production of morula kernels include but not limited to lack of market, lower prices, primitive production technology associated with health injuries and poor marketing. Erratic rainfall and recurring dry spells were perceived to be affecting fruiting and production of morula. The study recommends the development of an improved or modern technology in the production of kernels, listing morula tree under protected tree species in Botswana as well as encouraging and supporting its planting around the country.

This study recorded the physicochemical properties of the marula fruits, the biometry and breaking the dormancy in the marula seeds. Using 200 ripe fruits, the physicochemical characterization was done. From a random sample of 400 seeds, an assessment of the biometrics was performed, and the weight, length, width and thickness of the fruits and seeds were evaluated. Two experiments were conducted to study dormancy breaking using pre-germination treatments, which included immersing the marula seeds five times (0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes) in concentrated sulfuric acid (96%) and water, at 65 °C temperature. The control was time zero, using plain distilled water, with 25 seeds per treatment and four replications. The marula fruits revealed average values of 21.65 ± 3.44 g, 35.5 ± 2.38 and 34.8 ± 2.73, respectively, for weight, diameter and length. The soluble solids (SS), Hydrogenonic Potential (pH), titratable acidity (AT) and ratio (AT/SS) were 14.74 ± 1.0° Brix, 3.93 ± 0.49 pH, 0.63 ± 0.22 and 27.07 ± 12.10, respectively. For the weight of one thousand seeds, the average value was 3.576 ± 188.4 g. The mean values for the dimensions of the width, length and diameter of the seeds were 22.9 ± 2.11; 23.7 ± 2.04; and 14.9 ± 2.09 mm, respectively. The physiological quality of these seeds was enhanced by immersing the seeds from freshly picked fruits in sulfuric acid for a maximum of 30 minutes and storing them for six months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experimental data was obtained from literature for the supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) process of Sclerocarya birrera kernel oil in supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2). The external mass transfer, diffusion, and axial dispersion coefficients were determined from the experimental values as well as the Sherwood, Reynolds, and Schmidt dimensionless consortiums. The Reynolds number ranged between 8 to 15, indicating that natural convection occurred. The Sherwood and Schmidt numbers were between 2 to 3.4 and 1.6 to 4. Although the solubility of marula oil decreased with an increase in temperature, its effective diffusivity and external mass transfer coefficient increased. However, the external mass transfer coefficient, diffusion coefficient and axial dispersion coefficient decreased with an increase in pressure due to a decrease in binary diffusivity. Even though the density of the solvent increases with pressure, which results in an increase in the diffusivity of the solute in supercritical CO2, the coefficients however decrease. The amount of extract is also amplified by the increase in solvent power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solubility data obtained from literature for Sclerocarya birrea kernel oil in supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) were correlated using six semi-empirical density-based models viz. Chastril, del Valle and Aguilera (DVA), Adachi and Lu (AL), Sparks et al., Kumar and Johnston (KJ), and Mendez-Santiago and Teja (MST). The determination coefficient values (R2) ranged from 0.72 to 0.95. The average absolute relative deviations (AARD%) ranged from 15.53 to 0.049. A comparison was made between all six semi-empirical density-based models, and it was concluded that the MST model provided an improved and better fit than the other models investigated. After examining each of the six models under investigation, an improved model is proposed, which can characterize most of the findings taken into account about Sclerocarya birrea kernel oil yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural woodlands provide a myriad of products and services that support community rural livelihoods through improving household income, food security, safety net, health and nutrition, leisure, ecotourism and outdoor recreation. This is more often realized among women in remote or rural areas, who for most of the time, live in poverty. This study is aligned with the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) 1 (No poverty) and 12 (responsible consumption and production). Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the potential and constraints of using Sclerocarya birrea kernels (morula) as a source of ecotourism to support livelihoods for members of a community-based Trust (CBO) in rural Botswana. The study was carried out in two villages of Seolwane and Matlhako in the central district of Botswana. Data for the study was collected from 102 members of the Trust using a semi-structured questionnaire and an interview guide for key informants. Additional information was gathered through participant observation during field work. The harvesters and producers comprised mostly of elderly women with an average age of 64 years. The net margin for kernel production for an average producer was profitable, and an ecotourism potential for morula project was rated high. Challenges facing production of morula kernels include but not limited to lack of market, lower prices, primitive production technology associated with health injuries and poor marketing. Erratic rainfall and recurring dry spells were perceived to be affecting fruiting and production of morula. The study recommends the development of an improved or modern technology in the production of kernels, listing morula tree under protected tree species in Botswana as well as encouraging and supporting its planting around the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens and the lack of new antimicrobial drugs is a major public health concern that needs urgent and innovative solutions. Endophytic fungi living in unique niches such as in endosymbiosis with plants are increasingly drawing attention as alternative sources of novel and chemically diverse compounds with unique mechanisms of action. Methods In the present study, ten endophytic fungi isolated from the medicinal plant, Sclerocarya birrea were screened for bioactivity against a panel of indicator bacteria. Three bioactive endophytic fungi (strains P02PL2, P02MS1, and P02MS2A) were selected and identified through ITS-rDNA sequencing. The whole broth extracts of the three selected isolates were further screened against contemporary drug-resistant bacterial pathogens. This was followed by partial purification by solid phase extraction and GC–MS analysis of bioactive fractions. Results The bioactive endophytic fungi were identified as Alternaria alternata species (strains P02PL2 and P02MS1) and Nigrospora oryzae (strain P02MS2A). The whole broth extracts from N. oryzae P02MS2A exhibited a MIC of one μg/mL and 16 μg/mL against gram-negative, MDR Pseudomonas 5625574 and gram-positive MRSA 25775 clinical isolates, respectively. After partial purification and GC–MS analysis of whole broth extract from A. alternaria PO2MS1, 2-fluorobenzoic acid heptadecyl was putatively identified as the active compound in fraction C of this extract. This compound was also putatively identified in fraction E of A. alternata P02PL2, fraction B of A. alternata P02MS1 and fraction B of N. oryzae P02MS2A, and interestingly, all these fractions retained activity against the two MDR clinical isolates. Conclusion The putative identification of 2-fluorobenzoic acid heptadecyl compound showing a broad-spectrum of activity, more especially against gram-negative MDR contemporary pathogens is highly encouraging in the initiative at developing novel drugs to combat multi-drug resistance.

Sclerocarya birrea kernel volatile compounds and fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) from the Bubi district in Matabeleland North province of Zimbabwe were characterised by GC–MS. The volatile compounds of the oil include 65 different compounds from 24 distinct classes, dominated by 13 alcohols and 14 aldehydes (42%). Other classes include carboxylic acids, phenols, sesquiterpenes, lactones, pyridines, saturated fatty acids, ketones, and various hydrocarbons. The kernel oils revealed essential fatty acids such as polyunsaturated (α-linolenic and linoleic acids) and monounsaturated fatty acids (palmitic, palmitoleic, and oleic acids). Notably, oleic acid is the predominant fatty acid at 521.61 mg/g, constituting approximately 73% of the total fatty acids. Linoleic acid makes up 8%, and saturated fatty acids make up about 7%, including significant amounts of stearic (42.45 mg/g) and arachidic (3.46 mg/g) acids. These results validate the use of marula oils in food, pharmaceutical, and health industries, as well as in the multibillion USD cosmetics industry. Therefore, the potential applications of S. berria kernel oils are extensive, necessitating further research and exploration to fully unlock their capabilities.

Introduction : Sclerocarya birrea est une plante médicinale utilisée par la médecine traditionnelle pour ses propriétés thérapeutiques dans la prise en charge de plusieurs pathologies dont le diabète de type II. Cette étude vise à optimiser la taille des poudres des feuilles, et à identifier un traceur chimique d’extrait aqueux des feuilles. Méthodologie : Les tailles de la poudre des feuilles ont été obtenues par tamisage, à l’aide de deux tamis de mailles de 5 mm et de 0,080 mm. Les rendements d’extraction, le dosage des polyphénols totaux, et l’activité antiradicalaire par DPPH par la spectrophotométrie des extraits du décocté de la poudre des feuilles ont permis de comparer les différentes poudres. Les dosages par l’analyse spectrophotométrique ont permis de quantifier le traceur chimique. Résultats : Le meilleur rendement de 17,70% a été obtenu avec la poudre fine. Il n’y avait pas une différence significative entre les concentrations des constituants antiradicalaires de la poudre fine CE50μg/ml = 1,8 ± 0,30 et la poudre grossière CE50μg/ml = 1,7 ± 0,35, ainsi que les concentrations des polyphénols totaux PF = 685,22 ± 59,08 mg/100g MS et PG = 502,34 ± 63,87 mg/100g MS. Les polyphénols totaux et l’activité IC50 ont été retenus comme traceurs. Conclusion : Ces données, constituent une base pour le choix de la poudre d’extraction. Les dosages de l’activité antiradicalaire et des polyphénols totaux pourront être utilisés pour quantifier les composants des matières premières et des produits finis.

Introduction : Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst est une plante utilisée comme des précurseurs de composés naturels bioactifs utilisées par l’homme pour ses diverses propriétés telles qu’antihelminthiques, antibactériennes, antioxydantes, antidiabétiques, anti-inflammatoires et éventuellement un effet sur l’utérus gravide. Le but de cette étude était de comparer la composition phytochimique et l’activité contractile sur l’utérus isolé des macérés éthanolique des feuilles et des écorces du tronc de Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. Méthodes :Les polyphénols et flavonoïdes ont été quantifiés. Les activités biochimiques (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP et 15-LOX) et l’effet contractile de muscle lisse utérin isolé des souris NMRI ont été évalués in vitro. Resultats et Discussion : La plus forte teneur des phénoliques totaux (490,3 ± 2,98 µg EAG/mgEs) a été obtenu avec l’écorce et celle des flavonoïdes (380,6 ± 0,37 µg EQ/mgEs) avec les feuilles. Les plus faibles CI50 en µg/mL, ont été obtenues avec l’extrait des écorces avec 1,94 ± 0,20 contre 4,22 ± 0,19 d’acide ascorbique pour le DPPH ; 34,17 contre 21,43 zileuton pour15-Lypoxygénase et 1,40 ± 0,05 des extraits des feuilles contre 3,08 ± 0,07 d’acide ascorbique pour l’ABTS. Les extraits des écorces et des feuilles avaient inhibés les spasmes utérins de base. L’extrait des écorces s’est révélé plus antioxydant par rapport à l’extrait des feuilles, ceci pourrait être dû à la forte teneur en polyphénols. En effet, l’utilisation traditionnelle de cette plante par les parturientes pourrait être liée à ses effets antioxydant et tocolytique.

Background: The emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens and the lack of new antimicrobial drugs is a major public health concern that needs urgent and innovative solutions. Endophytic fungi living in unique niches such as in endosymbiosis with plants are increasingly drawing attention as alternative sources of novel and chemically diverse compounds with unique mechanisms of action. Methods: In the present study, ten endophytic fungi isolated from the medicinal plant, Sclerocarya birrea were screened for bioactivity against a panel of indicator bacteria. Three bioactive endophytic fungi (strains P02PL2, P02MS1, and P02MS2A) were selected and identified through ITS-rDNA sequencing. The whole broth extracts of the three selected isolates were further screened against contemporary drug-resistant bacterial pathogens. This was followed by partial purification by solid phase extraction and GC–MS analysis of bioactive fractions. Results: The bioactive endophytic fungi were identified as Alternaria alternata species (strains P02PL2 and P02MS1) and Nigrospora oryzae (strain P02MS2A). The whole broth extracts from N. oryzae P02MS2A exhibited a MIC of one μg/mL and 16 μg/mL against gram-negative, MDR Pseudomonas 5625574 and gram-positive MRSA 25775 clinical isolates, respectively. After partial purification and GC–MS analysis of whole broth extract from A. alternaria PO2MS1, 2-fluorobenzoic acid heptadecyl was putatively identified as the active compound in fraction C of this extract. This compound was also putatively identified in fraction E of A. alternata P02PL2, fraction B of A. alternata P02MS1 and fraction B of N. oryzae P02MS2A, and interestingly, all these fractions retained activity against the two MDR clinical isolates. Conclusion: The putative identification of 2-fluorobenzoic acid heptadecyl compound showing a broad-spectrum of activity, more especially against gram-negative MDR contemporary pathogens is highly encouraging in the initiative at developing novel drugs to combat multi-drug resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This papaer studiess the variations in moisture content within and among tree species of Sclerocarya birrea and Anogeissus leiocarpus, as well as the green density of a cubic meter of freshly felled wood from this species. The trees included in this research grew in Western Kordofan State, Sudan. Following their felling, tiny square samples of varying sizes (n=10) were gathered and weighed from each vertical position within the bole length (10, 50, and 90%). The results show that the average MC and the green density of the freshly felled wood were 109.97% and 686 kg/m³ for S. birrea, while the values of A. leiocarpus were 35.55% and 980 kg/m³, respectively. Furthermore, the findings of the analysis of variance revealed that the MC [%] varied significantly only between the tree species. Conversely, there was no significant difference in MC [%] within the vertical positions of the bole length for either species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The inebriation of wild African ele phants fr om eating the ripened and rotting fruit of the marula tree is a persistent myth in Southern Africa. However, the y easts r esponsib le for alcoholic fermentation to intoxicate the elephants remain poorly documented. In this study, we consider ed Botsw ana, a countr y with the world's largest population of wild elephants, and where the marula tree is indigenous, a bundant and pr otected, to assess the occurr ence and biodiversity of yeasts with a potential to ferment and subsequently inebriate the wild elephants. We collected marula fruits from over a stretch of 800 km in Botswana and isolated 106 yeast strains representing 24 yeast species. Over 93% of these isolates, typically known to ferment simple sugars and produce ethanol comprising of high ethanol producers belonging to Sacchar om yces, Br ettanom yces, and Pichia, and intermediate ethanol producers Wickerhamom yces, Zygotorulaspora, Candida, Hanseniaspora, and Kluyver om yces. Fermentation of marula juice r ev ealed convincing fermentative and ar omatic bouquet credentials to suggest the potential to influence foraging behaviour and inebriate elephants in nature. There is insufficient evidence to refute the aforementioned myth. This work serves as the first work to war ds understanding the biodiversity marula associated yeasts to debunk the myth or appr ov e the facts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antiretroviral treatment has significantly reduced human immunodeficiency virus infection and mortality. However, the current treatment regimen is limited by adverse side effects, the emergence of drug resistance, and the inability to eliminate viral reservoirs. Here, fifteen endophytic fungiwere isolated fromSclerocarya birrea and Hypoxis plants. Crude extracts of Alternaria alternata (strain ID PO4PR1, PO4PR2, and PO2PL1) of the fifteen isolate’s crude extracts showed anti-HIV- 1 activity in TZM-bl cell line at inhibitory concentration (IC50) values ranging from 0.017 to 1.170 μg/ml. The three crude extracts also maintained the virus replication inhibition profile on PBMCs and CD4+ T cells at concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 50.2 ng/ml. Partial purification using the solid phase extraction and analysis with Gas Chromatography-Mass spectrophotometry showed a diverse profile. The bioactive compounds were identified based on peak area, retention time, similarity index. The major compounds from GC-MS analysis of A. Alternata revealed the existence of cyclotrisiloxane octamethyl (22.92%); Propaninitrile (16,67%); Pyrrolol[1,2-a]pyrazine-1,4-dione, hexahydro-3-(2-methyl propyl) (10.42%); Silane, diethylethoxy(2-ethoxyethyloxy) (4.17%); Coumarin, 3,4- dihydro-4,5,7-trimethyl- 4,5,7-Trimethyl-2-chromanone (13.7%) and 1,2- Cyclobutanedicarbonitrile (2.08%) with previously reported biological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Therefore, these bioactive compounds from A. alternata fungal endophytes could be repurposed as potential anti-HIV agents. This study showed the potential of endophytic fungi, Alternaria alternata from S. birrea, and Hypoxis species as producers of anti-HIV compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, an aqueous extract of Sclerocarya birrea leaves was used as a reducing agent to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The synthesis was carried out at room temperature and was both rapid and simple. Different characterization techniques such as UV/visible spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy were used to confirm the formation of AgNPs. The synthesized nanoparticles exhibited catalytic activity for the reduction of 4-nitrophenol, methyl orange, methylene blue, and rhodamine 6G. The catalytic activity was monitored by measuring the UV/visible absorbance spectra of the compounds using sodium borohydride as a reducing agent and found to be high. Additionally, the particles displayed oxidase-like activity. In the presence of AgNPs, 3, 3′, 5, 5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) which is colorless was transformed to oxidized TMB, which is blue, using dissolved oxygen as the oxidant. In the presence of Hg2+, the oxidase-like activity was enhanced. On the basis of this observation, an assay for the analysis of Hg2+ was developed. The linear range of the calibration curve is wide (0–600 µM) and the limit of detection (LOD) is low, as small as 34.8 nM. The method is strongly selective towards Hg2+. Tap water obtained from the laboratory where these experiments were carried out was used to study the feasibility of the method in real sample analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diabetes, a prevalent metabolic condition with a wide range of complications, is fast becoming a global health crisis. Herbal medicine and enhanced extracts are some of the therapeutic options used in the management of diabetes mellitus. The plant-derived molecules and their suitable structure modification have given many leads or drugs to the world such as metformin used as an antidiabetic drug. The stem extract of Sclerocarya birrea has been reported as a potent antidiabetic (glucose uptake) agent. However, the bioactive compounds have not been reported from S. birrea for treatment of diabetes. In this study, the spray-dried aqueous leaf extracts of S. birrea were investigated as an antidiabetic agent using a 2-deoxy-glucose (2DG) technique showing good stimulatory effect on glucose uptake in differentiated C2C12 myocytes with % 2DG uptake ranging from 110–180% that was comparable to the positive control insulin. Three compounds were isolated and identified using bioassay-guided fractionation of the spray-dried aqueous extract of S. birrea leaves: myricetin (1), myricetin-3-O-β-D-glucuronide (2) and quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucuronide (3). Their chemical structures were determined using NMR and mass spectrometric analyses, as well as a comparison of experimentally obtained data to those reported in the literature. The isolated compounds (1–3) were studied for their stimulatory actions on glucose uptake in differentiated C2C12 myocytes. The three compounds (1, 2 and 3) showed stimulatory effects on the uptake of 2DG in C2C12 myocytes with % 2DG uptake ranging from 43.9–109.1% that was better compared to the positive control insulin. Additionally, this is the first report of the flavonoid glycosides (myricetin-3-O-β-D-glucuronide) for antidiabetic activity and they are the main bioactive compound in the extract responsible for the antidiabetic activity. This result suggests that the S. birrea leaves have the potential to be developed for treatment of diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The response surface methodology (RSM) was used to evaluate the influence of two independent variables namely extraction temperature and extraction pressure via literature data obtained from supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) process of Sclerocarya birrea kernel oil. The optimal (custom) option was utilised on Design Expert Version 13 to optimise the variables taken into consideration. The raw experimental data comprised of 9 experimental runs of which the temperature was varied between 40, 60 and 75 °C and the pressure was varied between 250, 350 and 450 bar. The reaction time, particle size and carbon dioxide (CO2) flowrate was kept constant at 30 kg CO2/hour for all experimental runs. Each extraction lasted for 270 minutes and each set of extraction conditions was repeated in triplicate. The determination coefficient value (R2), adjusted R2 value, pvalues and F-values were considered in determining the effectiveness of the response surface methodology model. The results from the analysis of variance indicated that the all model terms excluding the quadratic temperature term are all highly significant with p values less than 0.01. The quadratic term of temperature has no significant effect on Sclerocarya birrea kernel oil yield. The optimal conditions to obtain the maximum oil yield from Sclerocarya birrea kernels were at a pressure of 450 bar and temperature of 60 °C. Under these optimal conditions, the yield of Sclerocarya birrea kernel oil was predicted to be 9.22 g oil/L CO2. The experiment results obtained from literature agreed with the predicted values as indicated by the R2 and adjusted R2 values which were 0.98 and 0.97 respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sclerocarya birrea (Morula tree) is one of the indigenous trees bearing wild fruits with various applications in the African communities. Wine is a globally known beverage usually made from grapes; however, recently, other fruits, including wild fruits with a considerable amount of sugars, can be used for making wines. The marula fruit wine is also important in many communities for cultural activities and can be enjoyed by people of varying age groups depending on the age of the product. In recent years, there has been growing interest in shifting from traditional marula winemaking to developing technologies for the marula winemaking process and commercialisation. The process of marula winemaking is similar to the production of grape wines, which entails collection, selection and washing of the fruits; extraction of the juice and mashing; formation and removal of the scum; and ultimately spontaneous fermentation of the resulting juice. The new process in marula winemaking would take into consideration the use of starter cultures as either monoculture or mixed cultures developed from the native marula fruit microbiota and the pasteurisation of the juice. The main challenge or difficulty with marula is the extraction of sugar and other soluble solids from the pulp more than it is for the grapes. The other challenge confronting the sustainability of marula wine is the seasonality of the fruit and poor juice yield. It is therefore imperative to develop strategies to increase the juice yield without affecting the quality, to preserve the marula fruits to ensure the year-round presence of marula fruit wine in the markets and, consequently, to improve the income generation capacity of the households dependent on the product. In addition to achieving a high juice yield, it is imperative to ensure consistent quality wine products. This review gives an overview of the S. birrea subsp. caffra and the biochemical components of the fruits or juice. It also highlights the use of marula fruits for wine production in African communities. The potential economic sustainability of the marula fruit wine is explored, particularly in southern Africa, where the marula tree (Morula) is abundant and the marula fruit wine is popularly produced. The review also examines the opportunities, challenges and future prospects of the marula fruit wine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imported soyabean meal (SBM) is the major dietary protein (DP) source for the sub-Saharan African poultry industry making poultry production costly. Therefore, alternative locally available DP sources are required. We evaluated the potential of locally available Marula nut meal (MNM) to substitute SBM in Guinea fowl (GF) diets by determining its effects on growth, feed intake (FI) and utilisation and viscera macromorphometry. Five grower diets wherein, on a CP basis, MNM substituted SBM at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% were formulated. Thirty-eight 4-week-old keets (n = 7 – 8), each individually housed in a cage, were randomly assigned to grower diets, and fed for 5 weeks and then transferred to corresponding finisher diets and fed for 3 weeks. Induction and weekly body mass, daily FI, and terminal body mass (TBM), body mass gain (BMG), average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined. On slaughter, viscera masses, small and large intestines lengths, tibiae and femora indices were determined. In week 2 of the grower phase GF fed diet 3 (50% MNM CP) had the highest weekly BMG and ADG (P 0.05) on the trial BMG, ADG and FI of the GF but GF reared on grower and finisher diets 3 (50% substitution of SBM CP) had the highest (P

• Co-occurring S. birrea and S. spinosa trees had similar diurnal transpiration trends. • However, the main drivers of water use differed between the species;. • The transpiration dynamics could be predicted with a simple combination model;. • S. birrea productivity was severely affected by drought stress. Natural forests are an important source of livelihood for various communities. Yet economically important fruit tree species endemic to sub Saharan Africa e.g. Sclerocaryea birrea (Marula) are critically endangered due to over-exploitation and climate change. Effective conservation, management and utilization of native fruit trees require accurate quantitative information on how the trees interact with their environment. In this study we investigated the water use patterns and fruit yield dynamics of S. birrea, and another widely used species Strychnos spinosa (Monkey orange) growing on nutrient poor sandy soils in northern KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. The study aimed to understand how the water use and yield of these species are influenced by climate and soils. These data are essential to support biodiversity conservation and management, and agroforestry programs. Transpiration was measured on co-occurring trees of each species over two years using the heat ratio sap flow method. The sap flow and environmental data were used to develop and test a simple Penman-Monteith transpiration model. The model provided insights on how environmental factors affected water use and yield in the trees' natural habitats. The two species had similar diurnal transpiration trends characterized by midday stomatal closure. Peak transpiration per unit leaf area was higher for S. spinosa (∼2.3 L/m2/d) than S. birrea (∼1.4 L/m2/d). S. birrea transpiration responded strongly to rainfall pulses with the soil water deficit explaining ∼ 65% of the variation in tree water use. S. spinosa transpiration, on the other hand, was largely driven by the atmospheric evaporative demand rather than by soil water availability (R2 < 0.10), suggesting that the two species had different mechanisms to cope with drought stress. Despite the contrasting water relations, transpiration could be determined accurately using the combination model. The model has potential applications in agroforestry and species-specific conservation programs by providing accurate information on their water requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to investigate the polyphenolic profile and the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of four traditionally used medicinal plants from Burkina Faso: Parkia biglobosa, Detarium microcarpum, Vitellaria paradoxa and Sclerocarya birrea. The analysis of the main phenolic compounds was performed by the HPLC-UV-MS method. The anti-inflammatory effect of the aqueous bark extracts was investigated by the λ-carrageenan-induced rat paw edema test. The anti-nociceptive activity was evaluated by the Randall–Selitto test under inflammatory conditions. Seven phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, gentisic, vanillic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and syringic acids), and three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin, and quercitrin) were identified in the plant samples. High contents of gallic acid were determined in the D. microcarpum, P. biglobosa and S. birrea extracts (190–300 mg/100 g), and V. paradoxa extract was the richest in epicatechin (173.86 mg/100 g). The λ-carrageenan-induced inflammation was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) by the P. biglobosa and D. microcarpum extracts (400 mg/kg p.o.). Under the inflammatory conditions, a significant anti-nociceptive activity (p < 0.001) was obtained after 2–3 h from the induction of inflammation. The effects of the tested extracts could be related to the presence of polyphenols and could be useful in the management of certain inflammatory diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species distribution models (SDMs) are often used to predict the impact of climate change on the future distribution of species. However, the application of species-level SDMs often ignores intraspecific variation and can be problematic. The aim of the study was to incorporate intraspecific information into SDMs and compare predictions of subspecies- and species-level SDMs in a widespread African tree species, Sclerocarya birrea (marula). We used bioclimatic variables and terrain roughness index to calibrate nine algorithms in ‘biomod2’ platform. Ensemble models were built to predict the current and future suitable habitat of marula and separately its three subspecies, birrea, caffra and multifoliolata. Projections were made to 2041 − 2060 and 2081 − 2100 under three general circulation models and two shared socio-economic pathways. Results showed an expansion of the suitable habitat of marula as well as subspp. birrea and caffra in the two future time periods. The suitable habitat of subsp. multifoliolata, in contrast, contracted in future. Our results show that species-level SDMs may fail to detect climate change risks for intraspecific taxa, and consequently leading to under- or overestimation of the impacts of climate change. Incorporation of intraspecific variation into SDMs improves predictions of the impact of climate change and helps to identify appropriate conservation and management options.

Mopane worm is the edible larva of Imbrasia (Gonimbrasia) belina (Westwood, 1894), a species of emperor moth that is generally found in central and southern African tropical regions. Both over-harvesting of larvae and the destruction of the mopane woodlands are threatening its biodiversity. An insect with a description matching that of I. belina was observed in the northern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal, a subtropical biota. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the potential of the northern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal as a sanctuary forI. belina. The presence of I. belina in the subtropical biota of the coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal was confirmed through mitochondrion CO1 gene sequences, this being so far its southernmost occurrence. Field surveys revealed the occurrence of four morphologically distinct variants within the uMkhanyakude District, inclusive of the protected iSimangaliso Wetland Park and Hluhluwe Game Reserve from the beginning of September to early November as do most of the populations in the mopane woodlands but differs from them by having one outbreak per season instead of two. Imbrasia belina is polyphagous and feeds off hosts including marula (Sclerocarya birrea [(A. Rich.) Hochst.] [Anacardiaceae]) and seven other tree species. There is therefore scope to use the northern KwaZulu-Natal coastal region as a sanctuary for biodiversity conservation of I. belina. There are initiatives to cultivate marula for its fruit in the region, which further increases the potential of the area as a sanctuary for I. belina by farming marula for both its fruit and I. belina. The protected nature reserves present in the region will ensure areas of controlled use by humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diabetes, a prevalent metabolic condition with a wide range of complications, is fast becoming a global health crisis. Herbal medicine and enhanced extracts are some of the therapeutic options used in the management of diabetes mellitus. The plant-derived molecules and their suitable structure modification have given many leads or drugs to the world such as metformin used as an antidiabetic drug. The stem extract of Sclerocarya birrea has been reported as a potent antidiabetic (glucose uptake) agent. However, the bioactive compounds have not been reported from S. birrea for treatment of diabetes. In this study, the spray-dried aqueous leaf extracts of S. birrea were investigated as an antidiabetic agent using a 2-deoxy-glucose (2DG) technique showing good stimulatory effect on glucose uptake in differentiated C2C12 myocytes with % 2DG uptake ranging from 110–180% that was comparable to the positive control insulin. Three compounds were isolated and identified using bioassay-guided fractionation of the spray-dried aqueous extract of S. birrea leaves: myricetin (1), myricetin-3-O-β-D-glucuronide (2) and quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucuronide (3). Their chemical structures were determined using NMR and mass spectrometric analyses, as well as a comparison of experimentally obtained data to those reported in the literature. The isolated compounds (1–3) were studied for their stimulatory actions on glucose uptake in differentiated C2C12 myocytes. The three compounds (1, 2 and 3) showed stimulatory effects on the uptake of 2DG in C2C12 myocytes with % 2DG uptake ranging from 43.9–109.1% that was better compared to the positive control insulin. Additionally, this is the first report of the flavonoid glycosides (myricetin-3-O-β-D-glucuronide) for antidiabetic activity and they are the main bioactive compound in the extract responsible for the antidiabetic activity. This result suggests that the S. birrea leaves have the potential to be developed for treatment of diabetes.

Allocation of carbon to growth and defences in plants is affected by resource availability and herbivory, two determinants of woody plant abundance in savannas. Both factors are critical at the sapling stage of woody plants, yet their combined effects on sapling growth and defence have been poorly studied in savannas. Sclerocarya birrea is an iconic keystone species in southern African savannas, widely used by herbivores and humans. We hypothesised that low resource availability or high herbivory intensity would reduce growth and nutritional value for herbivores, but high resource availability or low herbivory intensity would increase growth and nutritional value. Support for our hypothesis would imply that any level of browsing intensity (relative to unbrowsed plants), regardless of resource availability, would potentially hold saplings in a browser trap because of reduced growth or improved nutritional value. We explored responses of S. birrea saplings to five levels of nutrient fertiliser and six levels of simulated browsing intensity. Low fertiliser application rates did not affect growth, but the highest fertiliser rate increased canopy growth. The most severe intensities of simulated browsing negatively affected growth and nutritional value. Our results suggested that either resource limitation throughout the growing season, or extremely intense browsing early in the growing season, is potentially able to retard long‐term growth of saplings and delay recruitment of adults. Although saplings that are severely browsed early in the growing season might not be re‐browsed later in the same season because of their reduced nutritional value, their weakened nitrogen status would be an additional limitation to regrowth. No significant interactions between resource availability and herbivory intensity were detected, which we suggest resulted from responses to resource availability and herbivory operating at different temporal scales. We recommend that future experiments of this type include carefully timed measurements to detect transient responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to investigate the polyphenolic profile and the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of four traditionally used medicinal plants from Burkina Faso: Parkia biglobosa, Detarium microcarpum, Vitellaria paradoxa and Sclerocarya birrea. The analysis of the main phenolic compounds was performed by the HPLC-UV-MS method. The anti-inflammatory effect of the aqueous bark extracts was investigated by the λ-carrageenan-induced rat paw edema test. The anti-nociceptive activity was evaluated by the Randall–Selitto test under inflammatory conditions. Seven phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, gentisic, vanillic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and syringic acids), and three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin, and quercitrin) were identified in the plant samples. High contents of gallic acid were determined in the D. microcarpum, P. biglobosa and S. birrea extracts (190–300 mg/100 g), and V. paradoxa extract was the richest in epicatechin (173.86 mg/100 g). The λ-carrageenan-induced inflammation was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) by the P. biglobosa and D. microcarpum extracts (400 mg/kg p.o.). Under the inflammatory conditions, a significant anti-nociceptive activity (p < 0.001) was obtained after 2–3 h from the induction of inflammation. The effects of the tested extracts could be related to the presence of polyphenols and could be useful in the management of certain inflammatory diseases.

This study investigates Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) seed oil (SBSO) as a novel feedstock for biodiesel production through the transesterification process catalysed by heterogeneous bio-alkali derived from banana (Musa acuminata) peels. Response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) tools were used for the modelling and optimization of the process variables. The reaction process parameters considered were methanol/SBSO molar ratio, catalyst loading levels, reaction time and temperature. Central composite design (CCD) was espoused to generate 30 experimental conditions which were deployed in investigating the individual and synergetic effect of the process input variables on Sclerocarya birrea oil methyl ester (SBOME) yield. Appropriate statistical indices were adopted to investigate the predictive aptitude of the two models. Analysis shows that ANN model obtained for the transesterification process has a higher coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9846 and lower absolute average deviation (AAD) of 0.07% compared to RSM model with R2 of 0.9482 and AAD of 0.12%. The process modelling outcome also confirmed ANN performance to be more precise than RSM. At methanol/SBSO ratio of 6:1, catalyst loading level of 2 wt%, process reaction time of 50 min and temperature of 55°, the experimental maximum SBOME yield was observed to be 96.45 wt % following the ANN predicted yield of 96.45 wt % and RSM predicted yield of 96.65 wt % respectively. The analysed fuel properties of SBOME was found satisfactory within the biodiesel stipulated standard limit(s). The study establishes that SBSO is a good source for biodiesel production and its biodiesel methyl ester is a potential substitute for petroleum diesel and a bioenergy fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determination of agents of, or routes for, entry of fruits, nuts and seeds, is a vital consideration in archaeobotanical research. It is important to determine how plant remains in archaeological deposits were introduced - by people or by other means - to ascertain whether they could be human food remains. We investigated whether baboon faeces are likely to have been the agent of entry for the abundant marula remains recovered from the Later Stone Age levels at Olieboomspoort, a rock shelter in theWaterberg, northern South Africa. A marula tree grows just beyond the drip line of the shelter and baboons rest on the cliff above the shelter. Fresh and dried baboon faeces on the floor of the shelter and along the drip line contained no marula stones or fragments. Our results indicated that baboons did not deposit the marula remains and that people were the probable agents. At Olieboomspoort, the presence of nutting stones and hammerstones associated with marula fruit remains, suggest that people used them for cracking the marula stones to remove the nutritious seeds. The interpretation for Olieboomspoort and, by extension, possibly other rock shelter sites, is that baboon faeces are unlikely to be a route of entry for marula remains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Degradation of components of the extracellular matrix such as elastin and collagen by elastase and collagenase accelerates skin aging. Phytochemicals that inhibit the activity of these enzymes can be developed as anti-aging ingredients. In this study, an investigation of the anti-aging properties of Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (Marula) extracts was conducted in vitro with the aim of developing chemically characterized anti-aging ingredients. Methods Marula stems, leaves and fruits were extracted using methanol:dichloromethane (DCM) (1:1). The stems were later extracted using acetone, ethanol, methanol:DCM (1:1) and sequentially using hexane, DCM, ethyl acetate and methanol. The stem ethanol extract was defatted and concentrated. Elastase and collagenase inhibition activities of these extracts and Marula oil were determined using spectrophotometric methods. The chemical profile of the ethanolic stem extract was developed using Ultra-performance-liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) with MassLynx software. Pure standards were used to confirm the identity of major compounds and were screened for anti-elastase and anti-collagenase activity. Results Marula stems extracts were the most active as they exhibited anti-elastase activity comparable to that of elafin (> 88%) and anti-collagenase activity as potent as EDTA (> 76%). The leaf extract had moderate anti-elastase activity (54%) but was inactive agains collagenase. Marula fruits and oil exhibited limited activity in both assays. The ethanolic extract of Marula stems was the most suitable based on its acceptability to the cosmetic industry and its anti-collagenase activity (99%). Defatting and concentration improved its antiaging activity and lowered the colour intensity. Six compounds have been tentatively identified in the chemical profile of the ethanolic extract of Marula stems of which four; quinic acid, catechin, epigallocatechin gallate and epicatechin gallate have been confirmed using pure standards. Epigallocatechin gallate and epicatechin gallate were as potent (p

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted with the primary objective of assessing the effect of a natural extract of Sclerocarya birrea on glucose metabolism in subjects with prediabetes. The duration of the study was 90 days. Thirty-three subjects assigned to the experimental group (daily ingestion of 100 mg of the nutraceutical product) and 34 assigned to the placebo group completed the study. There were 36 men and 31 women with a mean age of 32.3 ± 14.1 years. In the area under the curve (AUC) of the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), statistically significant decreases in the experimental group at 40 and 90 days as compared with baseline were found, whereas significant changes in the placebo group were not observed. Within-group differences were statistically significant in favor of the experimental group for glucose peak at OGTT, serum insulin, insulin resistance markers, and flow-mediated dilation. Changes in lipid and anthropometric parameters were not observed, although there was a trend for lower cholesterol levels and a decrease in body weight in the experimental group. Decreases in systolic blood pressure were also higher among subjects in the experimental group. This exploratory study confirms the antidiabetic activity of Sclerocarya birrea in prediabetes. Further studies using better measurements of beta-cell function are needed to clarify the underlying mechanisms of the hypoglycemic effect of this natural compound.

Dyes are ranked as an important class of pollutants which affect the aesthetic property of the environment when present even in very low concentrations. This study was carried out to explore the potential use of an agricultural waste (Marula seed husk) to decontaminate methylene blue (MB) from aqueous solution. The effect of change in water chemistry was also examined. The influence of basic adsorption parameters such as contact time, temperature, dosage, pH and particle size on the efficiency of adsorption were investigated. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were used to describe the equilibrium data while Pseudo first, second order and Elovich kinetic models were used to evaluate the kinetics of the adsorption process. Thermodynamic parameters such as change in enthalpy (ΔH°), entropy (ΔS°) and Gibbs free energy (ΔG°) were evaluated. Natural surface water showed higher MB removal efficiency than de-ionized water. The sorption process was favored more in alkaline pH range (7-10). The dye adsorption process was found to be endothermic, while ΔG° was negative implying that the reaction is spontaneous. Functional group analyses on the adsorbent showed the presence of hydroxyl, carbonyl and carboxyl groups. The Langmuir equilibrium model best described the adsorption process based on the linearized coefficient. The Pseudo second order model best described the kinetics of the reaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although there is an abundance of indigenous fruits in South Africa, knowledge of their potential uses is mainly restricted to within communities. In this study, marula fruit-processing waste by-products (fruit pulp residue and skin) were used as substrates in surface culture and submerged fermentation methods to produce vinegar (acetic acid) using spontaneous and starter culture techniques. The study revealed the possibility of producing vinegar through both methods of fermentation, with yields of acetic acid ranging between 41 000 mg/L and 57 000 mg/L (surface culture method) and between 41 000 and 54 000 mg/L (submerged culture method). Furthermore, the physicochemical property analyses revealed marula vinegar to be a potential source of bioactive compounds (total phenolics 0.289-0.356 mg/L GAE and total flavonoids 0.146-0.153 mg/L CAE) which displayed a potent antiradical activity against DPPH•: 78.85% for surface culture and 73.03% submerged culture, respectively. The sensory panel recommended application of the vinegar in products such as salad dressing and mayonnaise. Finally, we have demonstrated that the surface culture method using the inoculation technique is more suitable for the production of high-quality vinegar, with possible consideration for commercialisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Continuous debarking results in the death of medicinal trees. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of seasonal debarking on the physical structure, polyphenolic content and biological activities of Sclerocarya birrea at Nylsvley Nature Reserve in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Bark samples were collected from trees during the autumn, winter, spring and summer seasons. During each visit the created scars were examined for any physical changes. The effect of debarking on the polyphenolic content, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of methanol extracts of the powdered bark samples was determined. Seasonal debarking resulted in infestation by insects, reduction in callus formation and decay of stems. The results also indicated that seasonal debarking did not affect the polyphenolic concentration. However, debarking significantly (p < 0.05) increased the DPPH antioxidant activity of the experimental trees (IC 50 21.30 ± 0.62 μg/mL) compared to the control (IC 50 46.0 ± 0.8 μg/mL). Seasonal debarking also increased the antibacterial activities of the experimental trees compared to the control against the selected pathogens. A further relatively long-term study is required to conclusively establish the effect of seasonal debarking on the bioactive constituents. Highlights • Seasonal debarking results in the infestation by insects and decay of the exposed stem. • The more extensively debarked individuals took time to develop structures to cover the created scars. • Debarking reduce the polyphenolic content, free radical DPPH antioxidant activity and antibacterial activity of S. birrea samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was undertaken to know the uses and some nutritional potentials of Sclerocarya birrea. The African plum tree called Sclerocarya birrea is a fruit tree of the Anacardiaceae family, which provides populations some consumable fruits during the lean season. Although it is present in Sudano-Sahelian regions of Senegal, its favorite repartition zone is the Ferlo. Sclerocarya birrea is being rehabilitated in the framework of the implementation of the African Union program called the "Green Wall". Unfortunately, no scientific studies have mentioned the nutritional content of fruits coming from this area. In the context of the reconstitution of the vegetation cover, knowledge of the relations between man and his environment is important. Thus, the present study is undertaken with the aim of knowing the uses of Sclerocarya birrea and its fruits attibutes. According to that, ethnobotanical surveys have gathered knowledge on the species' uses in the Ferlo area (Senegal). Samples of ripe fruits harvested were analyzed using standard and conventional assay techniques. The results revealed that the populations of the Ferlo are well acquainted with Sclerocarya birrea and that its medicinal use is by far the most important (79%). In medicinal use, the most commonly used plant organs are barks and leaves. The results obtained on the pulp of the fruit showed that it is a good source of vitamin C, sugars, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Sodium and total polyphenols. The almond oil has characteristics that remain within the accepted food standards. These results are marked by a high variability in the physicochemical composition, which appears to be linked to variations in edaphic and climatic conditions. The analysis shows that the fruit of Sclerocarya birrea is an excellent source of nutrients and can validly fill certain nutritional deficiencies of indigenous peoples. The fruit also has potential for transformation that needs to be explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Addressing plant responses to water stress is critical to understand the structure of plant communities in water-limited environments and to forecast their resilience to future changes in climate. In a semiarid agroforestry system in the Sahelian savannah of Leona (Senegal), we selected nine common tree species and explored their stress-resistance mechanisms. These species represent a variety of life forms and are of high regional socio-economic importance. We hypothesized that different species would show different suites of traits to cope with water stress and expected to identify functional groups differing in strategies to withstand water shortage. Methods: Along a dry and a wet season, we monitored four traits reflecting above- and below-ground strategies of resource acquisition such as predawn leaf water potential (ψpd), specific leaf area (SLA), leaf thickness and leaf area index (LAI). We also measured two morphological traits: trunk diameter and tree height. LAI and ψpd were measured six times during the dry and rainy seasons, and the other traits were measured once. Important Findings: We identified two functional classes subdivided into two functional groups of each class. The first class included deciduous and semi-deciduous species that generally had large SLA, low leaf thickness and small-to-intermediate inter-seasonal variations in ψpd. The second class included evergreen species of two functional groups that differ in SLA, leaf thickness and the magnitude of inter-seasonal variations of ψpd throughout the year. The four functional groups identified in this study represent plant strategies differing in their response to changing environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: BACKGROUND: As a result of shortages and the cost of the currently utilized conventional dietary protein sources in the Sub‐Saharan Africa feed industry, the chemical evaluation of available non‐conventional sources for feed is imperative. One such source is Marula nut meal (a by‐product of Marula oil extraction). The present study chemically characterized the nutritional composition of two differently processed Marula nut meals (MNMs) and compared them with that of solvent extracted soyabean meal (SBM). RESULTS: The MNMs had higher dry matter, ether extract and gross energy but lower crude protein and ash contents compared to SBM. The cold press produced Marula nut meal (MNM2) had higher arginine than the hydraulic filter press produced Marula nut meal (MNM1) and SBM. The meals had similar neutral and acid detergent fibre contents. The MNMs had higher phosphorus, magnesium and copper concentrations than SBM. Although the total saturated fatty acid proportion was similar across the meals, total monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid proportions were higher in MNMs and SBM, respectively. Oleic acid was higher in MNMs than in SBM. CONCLUSION: The low crude protein content in MNMs compared to SBM is comparable with other conventional dietary protein sources. Thus, the MNMs could be used as protein and energy feed ingredients. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation managers are concerned about the impact that African elephants ( Loxodonta africana ) have on large tree species, necessitating the need for mitigation methods. Elephants actively avoid contact with African honeybees ( Apis mellifera subsp. scutellata ), staying clear of crop fields surrounded by beehive fence-lines and moving away from the sounds of swarming honeybees. Therefore, our objectives were to test whether the presence of beehives in trees influenced the likelihood of the tree receiving elephant impact, and compare these results to wire-netted (method used to prevent bark-stripping) and control (no treatment) trees. We selected a tree highly sought after by elephant, the marula tree ( Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra ), as our study species. We also assessed whether elephants avoided areas with marula trees containing beehives. Finally we provide a comparison of the financial costs of the beehive and wire-netting mitigation methods. We hung 50 active beehives in 50 trees, with 50 dummy beehives hung from branches on the opposite ends of each tree's main stem. We wire-netted another 50 trees and then assigned 50 trees as a control. Elephant impact on all 150 trees was measured prior to the addition of treatments and then post-treatment addition for 9 months. 54% of the control trees received some form of elephant impact, in comparison to 28% of the wire-netted trees and only 2% of the beehive trees. Wire-netting protected trees against bark-stripping but did not prevent elephants from breaking branches. Beehives proved to be the more effective mitigation method for elephant impact on large trees, although the presence of beehives did not prevent elephants from moving through the study site. The financial cost and maintenance required for the beehive mitigation method are greater than that of wire-netting, but the beehives can provide honey as an additive benefit on a small-scale usage level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst (Anacardiaceae) is a savannah tree that has long been used in sub-Saharan Africa as a medicinal remedy for numerous ailments. The purpose of this study was to increase the scientific knowledge about this plant by evaluating the total content of polyphenols, flavonoids, and tannins in the methanol extracts of the leaves and bark (MLE and MBE, respectively), as well as the in vitro antioxidant activity and biological activities of these extracts. Reported results show that MLE is rich in flavonoids (132.7 ± 10.4 mg of quercetin equivalents/g), whereas MBE has the highest content of tannins (949.5 ± 29.7 mg of tannic acid equivalents/g). The antioxidant activity was measured using four different in vitro tests: β-carotene bleaching (BCB), 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), O2−•, and nitric oxide (NO•) assays. In all cases, MBE was the most active compared to MLE and the standards used (Trolox and ascorbic acid). Furthermore, MBE and MLE were tested to evaluate their activity in HepG2 and fibroblast cell lines. A higher cytotoxic activity of MBE was evidenced and confirmed by more pronounced alterations in cell morphology. MBE induced cell death, triggering the intrinsic apoptotic pathway by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which led to a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential with subsequent cytochrome c release from the mitochondria into the cytosol. Moreover, MBE showed lower cytotoxicity in normal human dermal fibroblasts, suggesting its potential as a selective anticancer agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sclerocarya birrea is a tree indigenous to Southern Africa with significant importance in rural livelihoods for food, medicine, and carving. The bark, which contains 10–20% tannin, provides several pharmacological benefits as an antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-atherogenic, and antioxidant medication, among others. This study compared different extraction techniques used to recover bioactive compounds from marula bark. For this purpose, solid–liquid extraction, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) were performed under selected conditions, using only “food-grade” solvents. The potential use of the proposed extraction methodologies was evaluated in term of yield, and the individual phenolic composition determined by HPLC–ESI–TOF–MS. PLE provided a high extraction yield in all experimental conditions. With regard to bioactive compounds composition, a total of 71 compounds, a significant percentage of which in a galloyl form, were distributed in five major categories. The largest number of compounds, mostly flavonoid aglycones, were extracted by PLE, generally when the extraction was developed at low temperatures. SFE did prove effective as a way of extracting antidiabetic proanthocyanidins. Advanced extraction techniques represent a powerful tool to obtain bioactive compounds from S. birrea bark, which can be used as supplements or food ingredients, promoting the valorization of this crop.