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Glycerol, defined simply as a colorless, sweet syrupy liquid extracted from fatty substances through saponification, is an alcohol with three hydroxyl (OH–) groups in its structure. Glycerol has many uses in the consumer market. It is used primarily in personal care products, as an adhesive and sealing agent and many applications. Glycerol, whose name is propane‐1,2,3‐triol, standardized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), CHO open formula CH2OH–CHOH–CH2OH. It can be said that glycerol, a by‐product of biodiesel, is produced in very high quantities. Retention of the produced glycerol will lead to cost increases and environmental problems that may directly affect the development of the biodiesel market. Due to the supply of glycerol to the market in large quantities, glycerol prices have hit the bottom, and therefore, the income and profitability of biodiesel production factories from the sale of glycerol have decreased. This situation clearly shows that the excess of glycerol now poses an obstacle to developing the biodiesel market. This article aims to list the valuable chemicals into which glycerol, produced in large quantities as a biodiesel by‐product, can be converted under a single heading and to detail the studies carried out on this subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Food & Fermentation Industries is the property of Food & Fermentation Industries and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of China Brewing is the property of China Brewing Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Food Research & Development is the property of Food Research & Development Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In Mexico, there is a deficit in the production of pine resin, because it relies on natural forests only. Therefore, it is necessary to select provenances and phenotypes of potential species such as P. oocarpa. The objective was to determine the difference between provenances and the variation in resin components and quality, as well as the effect of geographic and climatic factors. Resin from five provenances was collected from southern Mexico. The percentage of rosin, turpentine and water was obtained, as well as the acidity and saponification index. P. oocarpa resin had 80.94% rosin, 7.7% turpentine and 11.49% water. The saponification and acidity index was 125.47 and 117.49 mg KOH.g−1, respectively. All variables showed differences (p ≤ 0.0001) between provenances. The provenance contributed between 6.44 and 11.71% to the total variance, the error contributed between 88.29 and 93.56%. Geographic and climatic variables only had an effect on the percentage of turpentine; the correlation was negative with altitude and longitude, but positive with temperature and precipitation. The results allow defining seed collection sites for resin plantations and orienting the selection for a P. oocarpa improvement program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the miniaturization of equipment for flow chemistry and microprocess engineering, low-cost sensors and analytical devices are becoming increasingly important for automated inline process control and monitoring. The combination of 3D printing technology and open-source lab automation facilitates the creation of a microfluidic toolbox containing tailored actuators and sensors for flow chemistry, enabling a flexible and adaptable design and efficient processing and control based on the measured data. This contribution presents a set of 3D-printed microfluidic sensor flow cells for inline measurement of temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), and pH value, while compensating for the temperature dependence of EC and pH. The tailored sensor flow cells were tested using model reactions in a single-phase capillary flow system. They have an accuracy comparable to reference sensors in batch measurements. The sensor data can be used to monitor the reaction progress (conversion), determine the kinetic data (activation energy, pre-exponential factors) of saponification reactions, and identify titration characteristics (equivalence and isoelectric points) of neutralization reactions. Hence, the 3D-printed microfluidic sensor flow cells offer an attractive alternative to commercial analytical flow devices for open-source and low-cost lab automation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large amount of used cooking oil (UCO) is improperly disposed of in sewage and rivers, leading to environmental pollution and posing health risks such as carcinogenic diseases. This study explores an eco-friendly approach to addressing this issue by repurposing UCO for laundry soap production, contributing to waste management and environmental decontamination. The soap was prepared by treating UCO with an alkaline solution (NaOH) through a simple saponification process, providing a greener alternative to traditional methods that rely on imported vegetable oils. The prepared soaps were evaluated for cleansing capacity as well as physical, chemical, and physicochemical properties. The results showed moisture content of 9.27 % to 10.34 %, pH ranging from 6.03 to 4.46, chloride percentage from 0.055 % to 0.29 %, free caustic alkali between 0.152 and 0.175, and total alkali content from 0.29 % to 0.73 %. These values meet the requirements of East African Standards (EAS), validating the quality of UCO-based soaps. By diverting UCO from waste streams and utilizing it in soap production, this approach supports waste management, minimizes environmental pollution, and contributes to sustainable production practices.

Abstract The results revealed the significant effect of NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4, and Na2SO4 and pH values of 3.5–11 on the interfacial tension (IFT) reduction using three types of neutral, acidic, and basic crude oils, especially for acidic crude oil (crude oil II) as the pH was changed from 3.5 to 11 (due to saponification process). The findings showed the highest impact of pH on the IFT of crude oil II with a reducing trend, especially for the pH 11 when no salts exist. The results revealed that the salts except MgCl2 and CaCl2 led to a similar IFT variation trend for the case of distilled water/crude oil II. For the MgCl2 and CaCl2 solutions, a shifting point for IFT values was inevitable. Besides, the dissolution of 1-dodecyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride ([C12mim][Cl]) with a concentration of 100–1000 ppm eliminates the effect of pH on IFT which leads to a reducing trend for all the examined crude oils with minimum IFT of 0.08 mN/m. Finally, the [C12mim][Cl] adsorption (under pH values) for crude oils using only Na2SO4 was measured and the minimum adsorption of 0.41 mg surfactant/g Rock under the light of saponification process was obtained.

Abstract The effects of sulfate salts under low and high salinity conditions and pH of 3.5–11 on interfacial tension (IFT) reduction and IL adsorption using resinous (RSO) and asphaltenic (8 wt/wt%) synthetic oils are investigated. The measurements showed the increasing effect of pH on the IFT of RSO/DW from 23.5 to 27.3 mN/m (pH = 3.5 → 7) in the first place and a reducing effect (0.4 mN/m) if pH = 7 → 11. Using a high concentration of 50,000 ppm for MgSO4, and Na2SO4 revealed an extensive IFT reduction for a pH value of 11 with the value of 0.20 mN/m for Na2SO4. The measured IFT values showed the significant impact of IL (500 ppm) on the IFT (minimum value of 0.01 mN/m for RSO/50,000 Na2SO4 + 500 ppm 1-decyl-3-methyl imidazolium triflate ([C10mim][TfO])) for pH = 11. The IL adsorption measurements showed the role of in-situ surfactant production (saponification process) on the 1-decyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride ([C10mim][Cl]) and [C10mim][TfO] adsorption reduction from 3.67 to 2.33 and 4.21 to 3.34 mg IL/g rock, respectively. The performed core flooding experiments using the optimum chemical formulation showed the possibility of tertiary oil recovery with maximum oil recovery of 28.8% based on original oil in place in the presence of 500 ppm.

The results revealed the significant effect of NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4, and Na2SO4 and pH values of 3.5–11 on the interfacial tension (IFT) reduction using three types of neutral, acidic, and basic crude oils, especially for acidic crude oil (crude oil II) as the pH was changed from 3.5 to 11 (due to saponification process). The findings showed the highest impact of pH on the IFT of crude oil II with a reducing trend, especially for the pH 11 when no salts exist. The results revealed that the salts except MgCl2 and CaCl2 led to a similar IFT variation trend for the case of distilled water/crude oil II. For the MgCl2 and CaCl2 solutions, a shifting point for IFT values was inevitable. Besides, the dissolution of 1-dodecyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride ([C12mim][Cl]) with a concentration of 100–1000 ppm eliminates the effect of pH on IFT which leads to a reducing trend for all the examined crude oils with minimum IFT of 0.08 mN/m. Finally, the [C12mim][Cl] adsorption (under pH values) for crude oils using only Na2SO4 was measured and the minimum adsorption of 0.41 mg surfactant/g Rock under the light of saponification process was obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PGPR is an emulsifier (E476) widely used in the food industry. In this study, a gas chromatography–flame ionisation detection (GC-FID) method was developed for the quantitative characterisation of the polyglycerol composition of PGPR. The method was validated to analyse quantitatively the polyglycerol species in neat PGPR products and in PGPR samples present in a lipid matrix. This method consists of saponification, acidification and petroleum ether extraction to remove interfering fatty acids, neutralisation, silylation and finally GC-FID analysis. Phenyl β-D-glucopyranoside was used as internal standard as sorbitol proved unsuitable due to its susceptibility to interference from Na/K chloride during silylation. The response factors of glycerol and diglycerol towards phenyl β-D-glucopyranoside were determined using pure standards, while response factors of polyglycerols with a degree of polymerisation of at least 3 could be reliably estimated according to an effective carbon number (ECN) approach. The validity of the method applied to PGPR samples was further supported on the basis of a mass balance considering the experimentally determined polyglycerol and fatty acid content. Moreover, recoveries of di-, tri-, tetra- and pentaglycerol were more than 95% for various PGPR samples added to two different lipid matrices at 2 wt% and 5 wt% concentrations. Furthermore, the method proved to be very repeatable (with relative standard deviation values below 2.2%). On the other hand, the inevitable presence of glycerol in the lipid samples caused fouling of the detector and column overloading, requiring frequent cleaning of the detector and trimming off part of the column. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is a common practice to use oils extracted from fruits seeds for soap making. The oils are nonedible to avoid food competition. The objective of the present study was to assess the possibility of preparing a soap of acceptable quality from oils extracted from seeds of Avocado and Mango. The ground Avocado and Mango seeds were subjected to Soxhlet extraction technique using n-hexane as an organic solvent. The oil yield of 2.43% and 1.32% were obtained for Avocado seed and Mango seed samples, respectively. The analyses of the physicochemical properties such as saponification value, acid value, percent free fatty acid, and relative density were found to be 25.245 and 84.15, 30.86 and 30.85, 6.26 and 6.26, 0.87 and 0.83, respectively, and the data were in favor of utilization of the oils in soap making. Moreover, the blends of extracted Avocado and Mango seed oils in a 1:1, 3:1 and 1:3 ratios (by mass) revealed Saponification values of 151.47, 162.69, 214.62, respectively; total fatty matter contents of 59±1.41, 63 ± 1.41, 67±1.41, respectively; total alkali contents of 1.44 ± 0.03, 1.715 ± 0.08, 1.77 ± 0.13, respectively. The pH values of soaps prepared from the two oils and their blends were found to be in the range of 9.6-10.15. The data are comparable to commercial soaps and also suggest that the prepared soaps from the extracted oils can be used for cleaning purpose without any harm on human skin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essential oil from licorice seeds was prepared and investigated using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), resulting in the identification of 47 beneficial components. The oil was found to be abundant in fatty acids: including linoleic acid (43.87%), palmitic acid (10.43%), oleic acid (4.51%), stearic acid (1.83%), and palmitoleic acid (1.25%). The oil's physicochemical properties revealed an acid value of 0.066 mg/g, a peroxide value of 7.267 g/100g, an iodine value of 37.231 g/100g, and a saponification value of 186.823 mg/g, indicating that it can be regarded as a premium edible oil. The antioxidant activity of this oil showed that it has a antioxidant capacity with a free radical scavenging rate of up to 38.53% at a concentration of 15 mg/mL. The in vitro anticancer activities against lung cancer A549 cell lines and cervical cancer Hela cell lines showed that it inhibited the cancer cell lines with cell viability of 61% and 56% at a concentration of 100 mg/mL, respectively with a dosedepedent manner. This results indicate that the oil can be considered to be used as edible oil or potential applications in the field of food and medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of sulfate salts under low and high salinity conditions and pH of 3.5–11 on interfacial tension (IFT) reduction and IL adsorption using resinous (RSO) and asphaltenic (8 wt/wt%) synthetic oils are investigated. The measurements showed the increasing effect of pH on the IFT of RSO/DW from 23.5 to 27.3 mN/m (pH = 3.5 → 7) in the first place and a reducing effect (0.4 mN/m) if pH = 7 → 11. Using a high concentration of 50,000 ppm for MgSO4, and Na2SO4 revealed an extensive IFT reduction for a pH value of 11 with the value of 0.20 mN/m for Na2SO4. The measured IFT values showed the significant impact of IL (500 ppm) on the IFT (minimum value of 0.01 mN/m for RSO/50,000 Na2SO4 + 500 ppm 1-decyl-3-methyl imidazolium triflate ([C10mim][TfO])) for pH = 11. The IL adsorption measurements showed the role of in-situ surfactant production (saponification process) on the 1-decyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride ([C10mim][Cl]) and [C10mim][TfO] adsorption reduction from 3.67 to 2.33 and 4.21 to 3.34 mg IL/g rock, respectively. The performed core flooding experiments using the optimum chemical formulation showed the possibility of tertiary oil recovery with maximum oil recovery of 28.8% based on original oil in place in the presence of 500 ppm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to recover Ni from acid leaching solution of waste oil refining catalyst, HBL110 was used as extractant to extract nickel directly and selectively. The saponification rate of extractant, extractant concentration and extraction equilibrium time were optimized, the extraction and de extraction stages were confirmed, and the multi-stage countercurrent series extraction simulation test and the continuous running of the on-line process were carried out. The results show that under the conditions of saponification rate of 40%, HBL110 concentration of 25% and extraction time of 10 min, the mass concentration of nickel in the raffinate is less than 30 mg/L, the extraction efficiency of nickel is more than 98%, and the extraction rate of Al and Fe is less than 3%. The three stage countercurrent extraction of nickel supported organic phase with 75 g/L sulfuric acid can achieve 100% back extraction of nickel supported organic phase. The on-line extraction process of the acid leaching solution of the waste catalyst is run continuously for 5 days, the nickel concentration in the raffinate is stable at 5 mg/L, and the extraction efficiency of nickel can reach 99%. The concentration of nickel in the back extraction solution is stable at 8 g/L, and the back extraction rate of nickel is 100%. The organic phase can be effectively recycled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study demonstrates the significant enhancement in oil production from a Romanian oil field using alkali–polymer (AP) flooding for reactive viscous oil. We conducted comprehensive interfacial tension (IFT) measurements across various alkali and AP concentrations, along with phase behavior assessments. Micromodel flooding experiments were used to examine pore-scale effects and select appropriate chemical concentrations. We tested displacement efficiency at the core level and experimented with different sequences and concentrations of alkali and polymers to minimize costs while maximizing the additional recovery of reactive viscous oil. The IFT analysis revealed that saponification at the oil–alkali interface significantly lowers IFT, but IFT gradually increases as soap diffuses away from the interface. Micromodels indicated that polymer or alkali injection alone achieve only minimal incremental recovery beyond waterflooding. However, AP flooding significantly enhanced incremental oil recovery by efficiently moving the mobilized oil with the viscous fluid and increasing exposure of more oil to the alkali solution. Coreflood experiments corroborated these findings. We also explored how divalent cations influence polymer concentration selection, finding that softening the injection brine significantly increased the viscosity of the AP slug. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human skin is an island in constant interaction between diverse microorganisms (Archaea, fungi, bacteria, and protozoa), especially the inner elbow, armpit and buttocks, of which an imminent health danger is possible during injury or their sustained proliferation. Fat-soluble lauric acid-containing palm kernel oil, hardness-giving caustic soda and water solvent were essential ingredients used to produce toilet soap in this study, via a mechanized setup. Free caustic alkali (FCA), pH and moisture content (MC), as determined for additive (honey, clove, black seed) formulations A, B, C, D and E, which are respectively in the range of 0.006-0.02%, 7.10-9.97, and 7.33-15.33%, gave a soap of desired medicinal functionality. Formulation E physicochemical property compares favorably with other soaps, including Septol, Dettol, Premier, Joy, Sunlight, and Premier Cool found in Nigerian markets. It is found that the three additives introduced into the formulation in the ratio of 33, 50 and 17%, respectively, are responsible for its septic, antioxidant, antimicrobial and sanitizing properties. With this fit achieved, improvement, packaging and mass production of the produced toilet soap already having satisfactory foam stability, lathering, cleansing, fragrance, form and quality (according to SNI standard), is encouraged in this part of the world.

In this study, a novel film of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/pullulan (PULL) with improved surface characteristics was prepared from poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc)/PULL blend films with various mass ratios after the saponification treatment in a heterogeneous medium. According to proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR), Fourier transform infrared, and X-ray diffraction results, it was established that the successful fabrication of saponified PVA/PULL (100/0, 90/10, and 80/20) films could be obtained from PVAc/PULL (100/0, 90/10, and 80/20) films, respectively, after 72 h saponification at 50 °C. The degree of saponification calculated from 1H-NMR analysis results showed that fully saponified PVA was obtained from all studied films. Improved hydrophilic characteristics of the saponified films were revealed by a water contact angle test. Moreover, the saponified films showed improved mechanical behavior, and the micrographs of saponified films showed higher surface roughness than the unsaponified films. This kind of saponified film can be widely used for biomedical applications. Moreover, the reported saponified film dressing extended the lifespan of dressing as determined by its self-healing capacity and considerably advanced in vivo wound-healing development, which was attributed to its multifunctional characteristics, meaning that saponified film dressings are promising candidates for full-thickness skin wound healing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Telfairia occidentalis is a perennial crop that belongs to Cucurbitaceae family, with seeds that contains significant quantity of oil. Process parameters (time, temperature, and particle size) effects, physicochemical and fatty acid composition properties of extracted Telfairia occidentalis seed oil (TOSO) were studied. Oil yields of five different solvents (chloroform, ethanol, benzene, petroleum ether, and n-hexane) were studied to choose best solvent. Extraction yield, physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition of oil were determined using standards procedures. N-hexane produced highest yield of 49.98 wt%, at 55 ◦C, 150min, and 0.5 mm. Telfairia occidentalis seed oil (TOSO) properties results show viscosity, density, saponification and iodine values of 85.1 cP, 0.9386 gm−3, 339.022 mgKOH/g and 149.294 g/I2∕100g oil, respectively; with 19.3% saturated and 80.7% unsaturated fatty acids composition. In other words, physicochemical and fatty acids composition properties of the oil indicate its potential applications for a number of industrial purposes, like in biofuels production, especially biodiesel and biolubricant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interaction between novel saponification products (RCOONa or RCOOK) of Robinia pseudoacacia seed oil and cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) in aqueous solution have been investigated by surface tension method at 25°C. The critical micelle concentration (cmc) of RCOONa/CTAB and RCOOK/CTAB mixture were measured. The surface properties of saponification products, CTAB as well as the mixed system were explored and compared. The composition, activity coefficient of mixed micelle, and the interaction parameters (βσ, βM) between surfactants were estimated according to the Regular Solution Theory, the Clint's model and the Rubingh's model in the framework of pseudophase separation model. The experimental results suggested that both RCOONa and RCOOK have synergism with CTAB in mixed micelle formation and surface tension reduction through calculating of βσ and βM in the mixed system. This could be attributed to the strong interaction between the head groups with opposite charges in the surfactant molecules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural and sustainable alternatives are becoming more and more popular as people become more conscious of the negative impacts that synthetic chemicals have on their health and the environment. Making soap from plant extracts became more popular in these circumstances. The current study aims to characterise and investigate the physico-chemical and antimicrobial properties of synthesized natural soaps. The properties such as pH, volatile matter, total fatty matter, and antibacterial activity of the soaps were measured and compared to those of commercial soaps that are available in the market. The agar-disc diffusion method was used to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of these natural soaps against certain microorganisms. According to results, soap types such as neem and beetroot (NB) soap, sandal and turmeric (ST) soap, commercial soap 1 (CS1), commercial soap 2 (CS2), and commercial soap 3 (CS3) had shown significant zones of inhibition. Some soap types did not exhibit any inhibitory zone against certain microorganisms. As per the results, it was concluded that the soaps made from neem and beetroot (NB) and sandal and turmeric (ST) had high antimicrobial qualities, effective alkaline pH (9.3), less volatile matter (6%), low alkaline content (3.5), and grade 1 total fatty matter (77%). As a result, both soaps are amenable to industrial production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of microwave technology is increasing in routine laboratories especially for synthesis reaction and sample preparation procedure in the last decades. This technology strongly affects the reaction rate reducing analysis time and side reactions and increasing percentage yield and reproducibility. Nevertheless, microwaves are mainly used in sample preparation for chromatographic analysis while only few works have been published regarding bromatological determinations. The aim of this work is to improve the determination of the saponification number avoiding the use of laboratory heaters, reducing the space required in the lab and taking advantage of microwave technologies to reduce sample preparation times improving reaction rate. For this purpose, the method developed with the use of microwaves was compared with the official ISO 3657:2020 method for animal and vegetable fats and oils and European Pharmacopoeia ones for cosmetic raw materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Electroplating & Finishing is the property of Electroplating & Finishing Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

OBJECTIVE: (1) Determine if a relationship exists between ionized calcium (iCa) and pancreatic lipase (cPLI) concentration in dogs, and (2) assess for correlation between resolving hypercalcemia and cPLI concentrations in dogs after treatment for primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT). SAMPLES: Phase I, 44 residual serum samples (collected April 2023) from client-owned dogs with a clinical indication for cPLI quantification. Phase II, 24 residual serum samples (collected August 2022 through February 2023) from clientowned dogs with PHPT pre- and postcorrection of hypercalcemia. METHODS: Serum cPLI and iCa concentrations were measured via the Spec cPL assay and a spectrophotometric method respectively. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were used to investigate if there was a correlation between serum calcium and cPLI concentrations. A paired t-test was used to investigate the effect of the resolution of hypercalcemia on serum cPLI concentrations. RESULTS: Phase I, serum cPLI concentrations were negatively correlated with serum iCa concentrations (r = -.429, 95% CI [-.64, -.14], P = .005) in dogs with a clinical indication for cPLI quantification. Phase II, median serum cPLI concentrations were higher before (median: 228.5 µg/L, IQR: 351.3 µg/L) than after (median: 141.0 µg/L, interquartile ranges (IQR): 279.5 µg/L) management of hypercalcemia (PHPT model). However, the decrease in cPLI concentration was not statistically significant (P = .70). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Calcium depletion may result in an inverse relationship between serum cPLI and iCa concentrations in dogs with a clinical indication for cPLI quantification. Hypercalcemia may be associated with an above reference interval cPLI concentration in some dogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edible oils had made an important contribution to the diet of people in many countries serving as a good source of proteins, lipids, and fatty acids. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the quality of the oils, based on the physicochemical parameters of some vegetable oils. Five edible oils were obtained, of which 2 were imported (avocado oil, palm oil), and 3 of them were domestically produced (olive oil, corn oil, sunflower oil). The samples were taken randomly in local markets in Tirana, Albania. Selection of the representative samples for each type of oil was carried out starting from the products that are widely used by consumers. The quality of these oils was analyzed by determining physicochemical properties such as density, index of refraction, acid value, saponification value, and peroxide value. Classical methods of analysis were used. The palm oil sample has high values of density (0.9152 g/mL) compared to the FAO/WHO standards. This shows that we have the presence of other added oils. Acid value is often used as a general indication of the condition and edibility of the oil. The acid value for all edible oils were below 0.6 mgKOH/g obtained from FAO/WHO recommendation. Olive oil has refractive index values of 1.4685 which is within the standards obtained from FAO/WHO, while the values of other oils are different from the required standards, or: avocado oil - 1.4734, maize oil - 1.4764, sunflower oil - 1.4764, and palm oil -1.4757, respectively. The different value of the refractive index indicates that foreign fats are present. It is noted that maize oil, sunflower oil, and palm oil have a lower number of saponification compared to the FAO/WHO recommendations: maize oil - 177.68 mg KOH/g, sunflower oil - 182.39mg KOH/g, and palm oil - 184.80 mg KOH/g, respectively. The lower saponification value indicates a low triacylglycerol content, consistent with the low ester value, and also indicates that the oil has no potential to be used for the cosmetic industry. We observed that palm oil had the lowest quality according to standards recommendation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To aromatically aminate refined rice bran oil (RBO), a by-product of the rice agro-industry, through a chemical-enzymatic epoxidation based on Novozym 435 and p-xylylenediamine insertion. Design/Methodology/Approach: Refined RBO was epoxidized with H2O2/Novozym 435. The resulting epoxidized rice bran oil (eRBO) was functionalized with the p-xylylenediamine aromatic diamine via epoxy ring-opening (X-eRBO), using ZnCl2 as catalyst. Iodine value (IV), saponification value (SV), and oxirane oxygen content (OOC) were determined to evaluate structural changes in oils. The RBO, the eRBO, and the X-eRBO were identified using FTIR, ¹H, and 13C NMR. Results: The IV, the SV, and the OOC suggest that the synthesis of eRBO and X-eRBO were effective. The increase of molecular weight in eRBO point to the formation of ~6 epoxy rings per original triglyceride. The OOC value of X-eRBO was 22% lower than the OOC value of eRBO, implying that an effective aromatic amination was achieved. The FTIR, ¹H and 13C NMR spectroscopy analysis confirmed the epoxidation and amination of the RBO. Study Limitations/Implications: X-eRBO may be a feasible precursor for value-added products, such as crosslinked polymers or corrosion inhibitors. Findings/Conclusions: Refined rice bran oil was aromatically aminated after two stages under mild thermal conditions. This result was achieved with an epoxidation sequence with H2O2/Novozym 435, followed by functionalization with p-xylylenediamine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is a common practice to use oils extracted from fruits seeds for soap making. The oils are non-edible to avoid food competition. The objective of the present study was to assess the possibility of preparing a soap of acceptable quality from oils extracted from seeds of Avocado and Mango. The ground Avocado and Mango seeds were subjected to Soxhlet extraction technique using n-hexane as an organic solvent. The oil yield of 2.43% and 1.32% were obtained for Avocado seed and Mango seed samples, respectively. The analyses of the physicochemical properties such as saponification value, acid value, percent free fatty acid, and relative density were found to be 25.245 and 84.15, 30.86 and 30.85, 6.26 and 6.26, 0.87 and 0.83, respectively, and the data were in favor of utilization of the oils in soap making. Moreover, the blends of extracted Avocado and Mango seed oils in a 1:1, 3:1 and 1:3 ratios (by mass) revealed Saponification values of 151.47, 162.69, 214.62, respectively; total fatty matter contents of 59±1.41, 63 ± 1.41, 67±1.41, respectively; total alkali contents of 1.44 ± 0.03, 1.715 ± 0.08, 1.77 ± 0.13, respectively. The pH values of soaps prepared from the two oils and their blends were found to be in the range of 9.6-10.15. The data are comparable to commercial soaps and also suggest that the prepared soaps from the extracted oils can be used for cleaning purpose without any harm on human skin.

Copyright of Brazilian Journal of Production Engineering / Revista Brasileira de Engenharia de Produção is the property of Brazilian Journal of Production Engineering and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Methods for determining MOSH and MOAH in edible oils showed major problems with interlaboratory comparability of analytical results, especially in the lower concentration range below 10 mg/kg. However, a method with improved sensitivity and reproducibility is urgently needed to obtain a valid data basis for minimization efforts. To cope this problem a new method was created in 2020. The method was established as the standard method DGF C-VI 22 (20) of the German Society for Fat Science e.V. (DGF). For the development of this method different sample epoxidation approaches have been performed, evaluated and improved. Additionally, a saponification, a decision tree for sample preparation, an upstream clean-up column and a system suitability test were introduced. The focus was on reliability and interlaboratory comparability over all edible oil matrices up to a LOQ of 1 mg/kg. The optimized method was validated in terms of trueness and precision in a collaborative trail with 11 laboratories. The achieved recovery rates of 89–105% MOSH and 70–105% MOAH met the JRC requirements. Method and validation results were obtained with HorRat values between 1.3 and 1.8 for MOSH and MOAH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Shipin Kexue/ Food Science is the property of Food Science Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The purpose of this study was to purify hyodeoxycholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid from pig bile saponification solution using column chromatography. The optimal resin was selected through static adsorption experiments. Loading, washing, and elution conditions were optimized. Hyodeoxycholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid were further purified through crystallization. The best resin was found to be CG161M macroporous resin. After optimization, the sample was loaded at a volume flow of 3 BV h-1 to adsorb 5 BV, washed with 40 % ethanol, eluted with 45 % ethanol and 60 % ethanol, respectively. This resulted in purities for hyodeoxycholic acid of 70.34 % and 66.21 % for chenodeoxycholic acid with yields of 86.48 % and 90.57 %, respectively. Crystals of hyodeoxycholic acid with a purity of 91.04 % and chenodeoxycholic acid precipitate with a purity of 80.28 % were obtained through crystallization. Hyodeoxycholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid can be purified using CG161M resin, and subsequent crystallization yields high-purity hyodeoxycholic acid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Repeated exogenous exposure can disrupt the skin barrier hence affecting its ability to maintain water levels and disrupt lipids in the stratum corneum to trigger transepidermal water loss (TEWL), causing skin to become scaly, dull, itchy, and more sensitive. The skin also contains a natural moisturizer called natural moisturizing factor (NMF). However, if NMF is insufficient to maintain skin moisture, additional protection is needed using a cosmetic moisturizer. A moisturizer is a product aimed to increase skin hydration and maintain normal skin pH. Moisturizer is classified as occlusive, humectant, and emollient moisturizers with different work mechanisms. Although reports on the side effects of moisturizer are rare, moisturizer can cause xerosis and positively modifies the skin barrier. Other harmful reactions for the skin include abnormal sensations, such as pain, burning and stinging over facial skin. Therefore, the ingredients in moisturizers need to be considered to prevent toxicity or adverse effects. This review aims to evaluate published studies on cosmetics, advantages, disadvantages and characterization of moisturizers. The characteristics discussed in this review include organoleptic/light test, pH determination, stability, spreadability, saponification value, density, viscosity, homogeneity, irritability, in vitro and in vivo skin hydration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the optimization of microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) technology for the extraction of turmeric oil. The study used response surface methodology (RSM) to analyze the effects of process variables on the oil yield and quality. The results indicated that hexane was a more effective solvent compared to petroleum ether, and the optimal conditions for extraction were a microwave power of 300 watts and an extraction time of 20 minutes. The study concludes that MAE is a safe, efficient, and economically feasible method for turmeric oil extraction, with potential applications in various industries and medical science. [Extracted from the article]

The objectives of our study were to enhance and evaluate an improved saponification method for the quantification of fatty acids (FA), with a specific focus on highly-unsaturated long-chain polyunsaturated FA (LPUFA) that are easily peroxidised in pig erythrocytes. These erythrocytes serve as a valuable large animal model for human studies. We implemented a modified saponification procedure, involving a shorter initial saponification at 95 °C for 2 min, followed by overnight saponification at 22--25 °C, and subsequent gentle base and acid-catalysed methylation of FA. These analytical procedures proved to be suitable for gas-chromatographic analysis of highly-unsaturated LPUFA, which are prone to peroxidation in processed piglet erythrocytes. The modified initial saponification at 95 °C, followed by overnight saponification at 22-25 °C, and subsequent methylation, were used to assess the suitability of erythrocytes for the determination of FA, tocopherol and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations in monogastric mammalian tissues. The content of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in erythrocytes can serve as a marker for DHA bioaccumulation in animal tissues and dietary contents of n-3LPUFA (especially DHA). The concentrations of δ-, γ-, α-tocopherols, total cholesterol and MDA increased in piglet erythrocytes during 16 days of exposure to dietary fat. The levels of FA and tocopherols can therefore be used in erythrocytes as indicators of the bioaccumulation yield of these compounds in animal tissues. Additionally, we propose that FA and tocopherol profiles in erythrocytes may be used as indicators of the concentrations of these components in diets and the effectiveness of their bioaccumulation in animal tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple and rapid method has been developed for determination of lutein and β-carotene in food formulated with lutein diester beadlet, microencapsulated β-carotene as ingredients by reversephase high performance liquid chromatograph. This method combines extraction and saponification to one step reaction and lack of evaporation. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was selected as solvent to release lutein diester, β-carotene from lutein diester beadlet and microencapsulated β-carotene, then add acetone-ethanol-20%KOH/methanol (10:5:4, v/v/v) to saponify lutein diester as well as extract lutein and β-carotene directly at the same time. The prepared sample solution was subjected to a HPLC analysis using Athena C30 column eluting with Methanol / methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) mobile phase. The precision, accuracy, linearity, specificity and ruggedness of the developed method were validated following AOAC guidance for single laboratory validation procedure. The recovery of lutein and β- carotene are 94.80%-104.76% and 98.94%-104.69% respectively. The injection repeatability: RSD(r) =1.8% for lutein, RSD(r) =5.5% for β-carotene. This method developed can be used for the quantitation of free lutein and β-carotene in products adding with lutein diester and β-carotene in quality control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of different extraction methods on the quality of coconut oil was carried out in this research. Coconut oil was extracted from coconut meat by mechanical, solvent extraction and freezing (chilling and thawing) methods respectively. The oil was each analyzed for physicochemical properties following standard methods. Results revealed that the acid value, iodine value, peroxide value and saponification value were respectively 0.25mgKOH/g - 2.04mgKOH/g, 2.60 - 7.54mgKOH/g, 7.28 - 9.24mgKOH/g and 63.31 - 217.22mgKOH/g. The pH and thiobabituric acid values ranged from 4.7 - 5.27 and 1.89 - 2.35mgTBA/kg each. The results were significantly (p < 0.05) affected by the various extraction methods. Results also showed that the oil samples were low in vitamin E(1.4% - 1.5%) and vitamin C(3.32% - 3.72%) as well as zinc(1.33 - 1.77mg/l), sodium(1.94mg/l - 2.34mg/l) and potassium(4.22mg/l - 14.18mg/l). The findings of this research showed that the various extraction methods could be used to produce oil of good quality for both domestic and industrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Hydrometallurgy of China is the property of Hydrometallurgy of China Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This work is concerned with polyethylene terephthalate (PET) saponification by different potassium compounds in various polyols as well as biodiesel’s main by-product, crude glycerol. It was established that reaction conditions (initial PET/K+ molar ratio, reaction time, etc.) could control the molecular weight of obtained oligomeric products. In ethylene glycol, depolymerization proceeds rapidly, and already at 10–30 min, PET is completely dissolved in the reaction mixture with the formation of liquid oligomers. Then, these oligomers react with potassium compounds, and after 200 min of the process, there are only solid, low-molecular-weight products (dipotassium terephthalate, monomers, and dimers). At the same time, PET saponification in pure glycerol is less effective, and solid polyether flakes could not fully decompose even after 200 min of the process. Crude glycerol takes the middle position between pure polyols. Based on the obtained data, an improved kinetic model was developed, and rate constants were estimated. This model takes into account PET saponification by potassium salts as well as direct PET glycolysis. Ethylene glycol is formed in situ by transesterification between fatty acid ethylene glycol esters and glycerol in the case of pure and crude glycerol.

The study demonstrates the significant enhancement in oil production from a Romanian oil field using alkali–polymer (AP) flooding for reactive viscous oil. We conducted comprehensive interfacial tension (IFT) measurements across various alkali and AP concentrations, along with phase behavior assessments. Micromodel flooding experiments were used to examine pore-scale effects and select appropriate chemical concentrations. We tested displacement efficiency at the core level and experimented with different sequences and concentrations of alkali and polymers to minimize costs while maximizing the additional recovery of reactive viscous oil. The IFT analysis revealed that saponification at the oil–alkali interface significantly lowers IFT, but IFT gradually increases as soap diffuses away from the interface. Micromodels indicated that polymer or alkali injection alone achieve only minimal incremental recovery beyond waterflooding. However, AP flooding significantly enhanced incremental oil recovery by efficiently moving the mobilized oil with the viscous fluid and increasing exposure of more oil to the alkali solution. Coreflood experiments corroborated these findings. We also explored how divalent cations influence polymer concentration selection, finding that softening the injection brine significantly increased the viscosity of the AP slug.

During transesterification reactions, catalyst content, free fatty acids (FFA), and water content affect the final ester content, which is also impacted by soap formation that is yet to be completely elucidated. This research aimed to examine the effects of reaction time (0–10 min), FFA content (0.2–1.1 wt%), and potassium methoxide amount (KOCH3 0.5–2.42 wt%) during the transesterification reaction of refined palm oil containing 0.49 wt% FFA. Soap formation occurred during the first few seconds of the reaction, and then, the soap content remained relatively constant. From a microscopic point view, soap should act as a mass-diffusion barrier reducing reactant mass fluxes to the reaction zone. High FFA content in palm oil causes high soap formation. A high-water content leads to soap formation in FAME and RPO. FFA contributes to soap formation due to neutralization and saponification reactions. It was found that the optimal catalyst content to meet biodiesel property standards (i.e., particularly that the ester content is greater than 96.5%) was 1.0 wt% of oil. Catalyst addition below 0.7 wt % resulted in diesel that did not meet the required ester content standard. Catalyst addition exceeding 1% did not improve the conversion further, but it increases the production costs. Regarding the effects of the type of catalyst on the 2nd step transesterification of FAME, the use of potassium hydroxide showed more soap formation than potassium methoxide. The results suggest that the drawbacks associated with high catalyst utilization should be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the extraction of lutein and zeaxanthin from Arthrospira Platensis (spirulina), with traditional protocols as a reference and response surface methodology as a tool for optimisation. An enhanced extraction procedure was developed for obtaining higher lutein concentration. The extraction process is further optimised using the central composite method, with the aid of design software tools. Methanol was used as the extracting solvent in a fixed ratio with dry spirulina powder. Saponification and hydrolysis using KOH, water and ethyl acetate/dichloromethane were done for isolating lutein and zeaxanthin from its ester. Ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry was used for analysing the absorbance of the lutein sample at a wavelength of 445 nm. Using the Response Surface Methodology, trials of various combinations are run for finding optimum conditions of saponification. The major variables were reaction time, reaction temperature and concentration of KOH. Temperature range of 45–75°C, the reaction time of 45–70 min and KOH concentrations ranging from 2% to 10% are observed as the optimum range. The sample is filtered using a PVDF membrane and stored in acetone or isopropyl alcohol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A mild, green, and convenient synthesis of nervonic acid was developed through a one-pot carbon-chain extension with the assistance of microwaves and lithium chloride (55% total yield); this is preferable to a previous six-step method (10% total yield). Compared with the previous lengthy refluxing process (>80 hours) with corrosive reagents, which furnished a mixture of cis - and trans -isomers, this efficient microwave protocol was more than a hundred times faster and was free of configurational isomerization. Notably, LiCl played a dual role in a Krapcho decarboxylation and subsequent ester hydrolysis under neutral conditions that replace the corrosive saponification in the previously reported one-pot method. Finally, this mild and efficient protocol was successfully applied to various carboxylic acids, including natural products, verifying its wide utility, easy operations, and attractive properties in organic synthesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the composition and form of carotenoids in typical fruits and vegetables obtained through saponification or non‐saponification and evaluates the correlation between carotenoids and antioxidant capacity. The results showed that the content of the total carotenoids in non‐saponified broccoli was the highest, reaching 1505.93 ± 71.99 µg/g d.w. The content of the total carotenoids in pumpkin flesh and broccoli after saponification was reduced by 71.82% and 52.02%, respectively. The content of lutein in spinach decreased by 24.4% after saponification, but the content of β‐carotene increased compared to non‐saponification. After saponification, the total antioxidant activities of apple peel, radish peel, radish flesh, and maize were significantly increased by 30.26%, 91.74%, 425.30%, and 242.88%, respectively. Saponification also improved the antioxidant activities of carotenoids in maize under six different antioxidant assays. The highest correlation was found between the total amount of carotenoids and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (R = 0.945), whereas the correlation coefficients among reducing power, 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl, 2,2′‐azinobis (3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid), hydroxyl and superoxide radical scavenging activity, and total carotenoids' content were 0.935, 0.851, 0.872, 0.885, and 0.777, respectively, all showing significant correlations. The study demonstrates that saponification can increase the total carotenoid content and antioxidation for apple peel, radish peel, radish flesh, and maize. Moreover, carotenoids were significantly positively correlated with most in vitro antioxidant assays. This study provides a theoretical basis for improving the postharvest added value of fruits and vegetables and rationally utilizing their byproducts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]