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High dietary salt intake increases the risk of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). NCDs are increasing among the urban poor in Bangladesh, but the data of their dietary salt intake are yet scarce. This study aimed to explore the amount of dietary salt intake among adults in an urban slum area in Dhaka, Bangladesh. A cross-sectional community-based study was conducted. We randomly selected 100 residents (39 men and 61 women) aged 20–59 years without history of NCDs. A modified World Health Organization standard instrument was used for behavioral risk factor assessment and physical measurements. Dietary salt intake was estimated from the measurement of sodium (Na) excretion in spot urine samples.The estimated mean dietary salt intake was 7.8 ± 2.5 g/day, and the mean Na/potassium (K) ratio in urine was 4.9 ± 3.4. More than half (54%) of them always took additional salt in their meals, but only 6% of them consumed 5 or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day. A quarter of them perceived salt reduction not at all important. Increased mean salt intakes were marginally associated with lower waist circumference and lower waist-hip ratio. Dietary salt intake among urban slum residents was higher than the recommended level of 5 g/day; however, its association with NCD risk factors was not significant. Further studies are required to identify the urban poor specific factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of salt intake restriction on overactive bladder (OAB) symptoms in patients with excessive salt intake. Patients received a brochure on nutritional guidance regarding salt intake reduction and received health education every 4 weeks for 12 weeks. Data from overactive bladder symptom score (OABSS) questionnaires and frequency volume charts (FVCs) were evaluated. The daily salt intake was estimated by determining the urinary sodium and creatinine concentrations using spot urine samples. Of the 98 patients included, 71 (72.4%) successfully restricted their daily salt intake after 12 weeks (salt restricted [R] group), while 27 (27.6%) did not (salt non-restricted [N-R] group). The scores to each OABSS question and the resulting total score improved significantly in the R group; however, the individual scores remained unchanged and the total score increased in the N-R group. The FVC data indicated improved voided volumes in the R group as compared to in the N-R group. Ultimately, 17 (23.9%) patients in the R group no longer fulfilled the OAB diagnostic criteria after salt intake reduction. Thus, salt intake reduction improved urinary symptoms in patients with OAB and may be a therapeutic option for OAB in patients with excessive daily salt intakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To identify countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) that have not yet achieved at least 90 % universal salt iodization and factors associated with the consumption of non-iodized salt among women of reproductive age.Design: A cross-sectional study using data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). The presence of iodine in household salt (iodized or non-iodized), which was tested during the survey process, was the study outcome. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to determine independent factors associated with the consumption of non-iodized salt among women of reproductive age.Setting: There were eleven countries in SSA that participated in the DHS since 2015 and measured the presence of iodine in household salt.Participants: Women (n 108 318) aged 15-49 years.Results: Countries with the highest rate of non-iodized salt were Senegal (29·5 %) followed by Tanzania (21·3 %), Ethiopia (14·0 %), Malawi (11·6 %) and Angola (10·8 %). The rate of non-iodized salt was less than 1 % in Rwanda (0·3 %), Uganda (0·5 %) and Burundi (0·8 %). Stepwise multivariable logistic regression showed that women were more likely to be using non-iodized salt (adjusted OR; 95 % CI) if they were poor (1·62; 1·48, 1·78), pregnant (1·16; 1·04, 1·29), aged 15-24 years (v. older: 1·14; 1·04, 1·24) and were not literate (1·14; 1·06, 1·23).Conclusions: The use of non-iodized salt varies among SSA countries. The higher level of use of non-iodized salt among poor, young women and pregnant women is particularly concerning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context Urinary aldosterone levels (Uald) are widely measured in the oral sodium-loading test to confirm primary aldosteronism (PA), but reliable studies on their diagnostic value are limited. This may be due to the difficulty in collecting urine with reliable accuracy, keeping oral sodium intake constant between patients. Therefore, we focused on 24-hour Uald after intravenous saline infusion in a hospitalized setting, which provides a reliable sodium load in consistent amounts. Objective Comparing plasma aldosterone concentrations (PAC) and Uald after saline infusion in the sitting position, to evaluate the accuracy in determining PA subtypes and the correlation of both measurements. Design and Setting This was a retrospective cross-sectional study in a single referral center. Patients Of 53 patients without renal dysfunction who were diagnosed with PA and underwent adrenal venous sampling, 16 and 37 were diagnosed with unilateral and bilateral PA, respectively. Main Outcome Measures Uald collected for 24 hours and PAC after saline infusion. Results The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for diagnosing unilateral PA was not significantly different between Uald and PAC after saline infusion (0.921 and 0.958, respectively; P  = 0.370). The predicted optimal cutoff value of Uald was 16.5 μg/day (sensitivity, 87.5%; specificity, 100%), and that of PAC after saline infusion was 19.3 ng/dL (sensitivity, 87.5%; specificity, 97.3%). In studied patients with PA, Uald was positively correlated with PAC after saline infusion (r  = 0.617; P  < 0.001). Conclusions We reassessed Uald in PA patients under sufficient sodium loading and demonstrated the correlation between Uald and PAC after saline infusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated fluid and electrolyte balance in well-trained male and female swimmers during 2 training sessions. Participants were 17 nationally ranked swimmers measured during a period of intensive training. Sweat loss was assessed from changes in body mass after correction for fluid intake and urine collection. Sweat composition was measured from waterproof absorbent patches applied at 4 skin sites. Air and pool-water temperatures were 36 °C and 27.4 °C, respectively. Training lasted 105 min in each session. All measured variables were similar on the 2 testing days. Mean sweat-volume loss was 548 ± 243 ml, and mean sweat rate was 0.31 ± 0.1 L/hr. Mean fluid intake was 489 ± 270 ml. Mean body-mass loss was 0.10 ± 0.50 kg, equivalent to 0.1% ± 0.7% dehydration. Mean pretraining urine osmolality was 662 ± 222 mOsm/kg, which was negatively associated with both mean drink volume consumed (p = .044, r² = .244) and mean urine volume produced during training (p = .002, r² = .468). Mean sweat Na+, K+, and Cl- concentrations (mmol/L) were 43 ± 14, 4 ± 1, and 31± 9, respectively; values were not different between males and females and were not different between days except for a marginal difference in K+ concentration. The average swimmer remained hydrated during the session, and calculated sweat rates were similar to those in previous aquatic studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contrast to muscle cramps that are brought on by muscle overload or fatigue, exertional heat cramps seem to be prompted by extensive sweating and a significant sweat-induced whole-body sodium deficit. As a result of a consequent contracted interstitial compartment, axon terminals of selected motor neurons can become hyper-excitable and spontaneously discharge. Barely detectable muscle fasciculations or "twitches" in the affected muscles can rapidly progress to debilitating muscle cramps in just 20 to 30 minutes. To aid recovery, salt (NaCl) and water lost from sweating should be sufficiently replaced so as to restore the extracellular volume and interstitial fluid spaces. Sweat sodium, chloride, and fluid losses incurred during training and competition need to be closely matched by daily salt and fluid intake, in order to prevent an excessive sodium deficit, maintain sufficient fluid balance, and avoid exertional heat cramps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Exertional heat exhaustion (HEX) is the most common form of heat illness experienced by athletes, laborers, and military personnel. Both dehydration stemming from a water and/or salt deficiency and a high ambient temperature must exist for HEX to occur. In the field, appropriate therapy can reduce recovery time. Objective: This manuscript provides clinical guidance regarding return to activity. The primary focus of this paper is to describe the evaluation of residual effects and the underlying personal characteristics that initially predispose the athlete to HEX. Attention to these factors will reduce the risk of future episodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High salt intake is the major cause of hypertension and accordingly leads to cardiovascular diseases. The intake of the socalled "hidden salt" through some food stuffs is an important public health issue. This cross-sectional population based study examined dietary habits and evaluated the salt intake through daily snacking among Croatian schoolchildren. The study included 1077 schoolchildren, aged 8.6±1.2 years (range 6 to 11 years old), 48.9% boys and 51.1% girls. The self-administered questionnaire was used for data collection on dietary habits and laboratory determination of salt content in snack meals was performed. Study revealed several unhealthy dietary habits in studied population such as skipping breakfast (32.0% of children), unhealthy snacking (51.6% of children) and consumption of away-from-home meals (46.7% of children) whereas excessive salt intake through unhealthy snacking could pose a serious public health issue in a studied population. In order to improve dietary habits of this population, targeted dietary public health interventions are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper studies the multifractal properties of blood pressure (BP) time series of Salt Sensitive (SS) Dahl rats subject to low salt and high salt diet. The results are compared to those of the non hypertensive SSBN13 rats which are also subject to low salt and high salt diet. The time series exhibits multifractal properties in all cases. The BP time series is more complex in case of SS rats. The SSBN13 rats exhibit a higher degree of correlation compared to the SS rats. The results are interpreted and compared with results of previous investigation performed on the same samples The original time series was further decomposed into sign magnitude series of the increments and the analysis was repeated for the magnitude series. It was very interesting to observe that investigation of the original series as well as the magnitude series provide a better insight to the study. Some parameters which do not show significant variation for original series show considerable amount of change for magnitude series. Highlights • Paper studies multifractal properties of blood pressure time series of Salt Sensitive Dahl rats. • Rats are subjected to low salt and high salt diet. • Results are compared to those of the non hypertensive SSBN13 rats subject to same diet. • Degree of multifractality is more in case of SS rats. • Degree of correlation is more in case of SSBN13 rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concentration of sodium in dialysis fluid, a major determinant of extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure, plays a major role in the sodium balance in end-stage renal disease patients. A low dialysate sodium concentration (DNa) reduces interdialytic weight gain (IDWG) and blood pressure and might help ameliorate endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. However, low DNa can also increase the incidence of hypotensive episodes and muscle cramps. Sodium profiling, as typically prescribed in which the DNa is ramped up from above 140 mEq/L to nonphysiological levels, might reduce hypotension in patients with hemodynamic instability but at the cost of the consequences of hypernatremia. Serum sodium concentrations of individual patients fall within a narrow range around a "sodium setpoint." The sodium gradient, the difference between the sodium set point and the DNa, is associated more robustly with clinical outcomes than DNa itself. Sodium concentration presents several issues: the influence of the net negative charge of plasma proteins on sodium flux across the dialysis membrane (Donnan equilibrium); and the clinically important problems in measuring sodium levels. This article presents a review of the clinical effects of DNa and of basic aspects of sodium balance in hemodialysis patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new application of metamaterial is proposed in the present work to measure the amount of glucose, urea and sodium chloride (GUS) in human blood where structure deals with one-dimensional polymer metamaterial at signal of 589 nm. Finite difference time domain method is manipulated with above said structure to fetch the variation of electric field propagation in metamaterial, which leads to an investigation of different parameter in human blood. Further the numerical upshot affirms that the intensity transmitted through metamaterial device varies linearly with the concentration of glucose, urea and sodium chloride with having R 2  = 0.9963, 0.0.9903 and 0.9938 which is the basic principle of the current measurement of said bio-medical parameter. Moreover computational result inferred that the virtuous sensitivity affirms for accurate measurement of GUS using polymer metamaterial structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Aims: One potential pathomechanism how low nephron number leads to hypertension in later life is altered salt handling. We therefore evaluated changes in electrolyte and water content in wildtype (wt) and GDNF+/- mice with a 30% reduction of nephron number. Methods: 32 GDNF+/- and 36 wt mice were fed with low salt (LSD, 0.03%, normal drinking water) or high salt (HSD, 4%, 0.9% drinking water) diet for 4 weeks. Blood pressure was continuously measured by telemetry in a subgroup. At the end of the experiment and after standardized ashing processes electrolyte- and water contents of the skin and the total body were determined. Results: We found higher blood pressure in high salt treated GDNF+/-compared to wt mice. Of interest, we could not confirm an increase in total-body sodium as predicted by prevailing explanations, but found increased total body and skin chloride that interestingly correlated with relative kidney weight. Conclusion: We hereby firstly report significant total body and skin chloride retention in salt sensitive hypertension of GDNF+/-mice with genetically determined lower nephron number. Thus, in contrast to the prevailing opinion our data argue for the involvement of non-volume related mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salt and soy sauce are the main ways of sodium intake in Chinese dietary. In this study, we used the data of the China Health and Nutrition Surveys to describe the secular trends of salt and soy sauce intake among Chinese adults from 1997 to 2011. Trends were tested by multiple linear regression models. During the past 14 years, the consumption of sodium, salt and soy sauce intake values decreased significantly across the six study periods (p < .0001) among both men and women. Averaged salt values decreased by 4.9 g/d in men and 4.1 g/d in women. Mean soy sauce intake values decreased by 9.0 g/d among men and 7.3 g/d among women. Similar significant trends were observed in all age groups, activity levels and regions (p < .0001). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction High salt intake is associated with high blood pressure. This pilot study aimed to measure the salt content of some fast foods in Casablanca, Morocco. Materials and methods Thirty-eight fast foods were collected from different snacks and restaurants in Casablanca, between 1st March and 30th May 2014. Six types of fast foods were targeted: tuna sandwich ( n = 8), merguez sandwich ( n = 8), minced meat sandwich ( n = 6), eggs sandwich ( n = 6), shawarma ( n = 6) and pizza ( n = 4). The total weight of each fast food was recorded and then each sandwich was cut and mixed until homogeneous doughs using a mixer robot. The doughs obtained were immediately put in plastic food bags and frozen at − 20 ̊C until analysis. Analysis of the sodium content was carried out according to the Mohr method in an accredited public laboratory. Results The sodium content values were from 0.25 g/100 g (0.62 g of salt/100 g) in minced meat sandwiches to 0.44 g/100 g (1.1 g of salt/100 g) in pizzas. Salt content expressed per individual serving showed that the pizzas had the highest average amount (2.62 g/serving), while the minced meat sandwiches had the lowest average amount (1.42 g/serving). These values varied according to portion size. Conclusion This pilot study showed for the first time in Morocco that salt content of some fast foods is higher and consumption of only one serving of these fast foods can exceed half of the daily recommendation of salt (5 g/day). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-spined sticklebacks ( Gasterosteus aculeatus L.) of the Camargue region (Rhone delta, northern Mediterranean Sea) occupy coastal mesohaline lagoons and freshwater canals. In this study, the acclimation capacity to different salinities of a population living in freshwater canals was investigated. Freshwater ( FW; 5 ‰) individuals were compared to fish acclimated for at least 2 weeks to brackish water ( BW; 15 ‰) and seawater ( SW; 30 ‰). Blood osmotic pressure and gill Na+/K+- ATPase ( NKA) gene expression of the α1 subunit and α1a and α1b isoforms were determined at these salinities. NKA protein expression in the gill ionocytes and the remodelling of these cells were also investigated through NKA immunolabelling and electron microscopy. Blood osmolalities of fish acclimated to FW, BW and SW were significantly different. Branchial NKA α1a and α1b expressions also differed, with a higher expression of NKA α1b in fish acclimated to SW. Gill ionocytes in fish acclimated to FW were located along the lamellae and at their base and appeared elongated, whereas these cells were restricted to gill filaments in fish acclimated to SW with a round shape. Finally, electron microscopy revealed three different types of apical structures for these ionocytes: a honeycomb-like structure and a dome shape in FW, and deeply encrypted in SW. This study shows that ionocyte cell type and morphology, and gill NKA expression are salinity-dependent. This branchial remodelling is directly linked to the physiological homeostatic status reached by the fish. It also highlights that sticklebacks of the Camargue region can rapidly acclimate to different salinities and can easily migrate between FW canals and mesohaline coastal lagoons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Aims: Obesity and high salt intake are major risk factors for hypertension and cardiometabolic diseases. Obese individuals often consume more dietary salt. We aim to examine the neurophysiologic effects underlying obesity-related high salt intake. Methods: A multi-center, random-order, double-blind taste study, SATIETY-1, was conducted in the communities of four cities in China; and an interventional study was also performed in the local community of Chongqing, using brain positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) scanning. Results: We showed that overweight/obese individuals were prone to consume a higher daily salt intake (2.0 g/day higher compared with normal weight individuals after multivariable adjustment, 95% CI, 1.2-2.8 g/day, P < 0.001), furthermore they exhibited reduced salt sensitivity and a higher salt preference. The altered salty taste and salty preference in the overweight/obese individuals was related to increased activity in brain regions that included the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC, r = 0.44, P= 0.01), insula (r = 0.38, P= 0.03), and parahippocampus (r = 0.37, P= 0.04). Conclusion: Increased salt intake among overweight/obese individuals is associated with altered salt sensitivity and preference that related to the abnormal activity of gustatory cortex. This study provides insights for reducing salt intake by modifying neural processing of salty preference in obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose was to examine whether prolonged moderate stress associated with a student exam would increase the blood pressure response to a salt load in young healthy normotensive individuals. Methods Ten healthy young subjects were examined at two different occasions in random order (i) during preparation for a medical exam (prolonged stress) and (ii) outside the exam period (low stress). All subjects consumed a controlled diet for 3 days with low- or high-salt content in randomized order. The subjective stress was measured by Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Scale, SCL Symptom Checklist for stress and the Visual Analogue Scale. On each level of stress, 24-h ambulatory blood pressure and cardiac output ( CO) were measured. Furthermore, plasma norepinephrine ( NE), epinephrine (E) and plasma renin activity ( PRA) were measured. Results Twenty-four-hour ABP, 24-h heart rate, CO as well as plasma levels of NE, E and PRA remained unchanged by changes in stress level. Day-night reduction in SAP was significantly larger during moderate stress and high-salt intake; however, no significant difference was observed during daytime and night-time. Individual increase in mental stress correlated significantly with an individual decrease in PRA ( SCL-17, r = −0·80, P<0·05, STAI r = −0·64 P<0·05) during high-salt intake. Conclusion Moderate stress over a period of time in young healthy normotensive individuals does not lead to changes in 24-h ABP. However, the augmented reduction in day-to-night systolic blood pressure during high-salt intake and moderate stress may indicate that stress affects blood pressure regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There has been a marked increase in the incidence of autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis (MS) in the last decades which is most likely driven by a change in environmental factors. Here, growing evidence suggests that ingredients of a Western diet like high intake of sodium chloride (NaCl) or saturated fatty acids may impact systemic immune responses, thus increasing disease susceptibility. Recently, we have shown that high dietary salt or long-chain fatty acid (LCFA) intake indeed aggravates T helper (Th) cell responses and neuroinflammation.Methods: Naïve CD4+ T cells were treated with an excess of 40 mM NaCl and/or 250 μM lauric acid (LA) in vitro to analyze effects on Th cell differentiation, cytokine secretion, and gene expression. We employed ex vivo analyses of the model disease murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) to investigate whether salt and LCFA may affect disease severity and T cell activation in vivo.Results: LCFA, like LA, together with NaCl enhance the differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells as well as pro-inflammatory cytokine and gene expression in vitro. In cell culture, we observed an additive effect of LA and hypertonic extracellular NaCl (NaCl + LA) in Th17 differentiation assays as well as on IL-17, GM-CSF, and IL-2 gene expression. In contrast, NaCl + LA reduced Th2 frequencies. We employed EAE as a model of Th1/Th17 cell-mediated autoimmunity and show that the combination of a NaCl- and LA-rich diet aggravated the disease course and increased T cell infiltration into the central nervous system (CNS) to the same extent as dietary NaCl.Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate a partially additive effect of NaCl and LA on Th cell polarization in vitro and on Th cell responses in autoimmune neuroinflammation. These data may help to better understand the pathophysiology of autoimmune diseases such as MS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The School-based Education Program to Reduce Salt Intake in Children and Their Families study was a cluster randomized control trial among grade five students in 28 primary schools and their families in Changzhi, China. It achieved a significant effect in lowering systolic blood pressure (SBP) in all family adults by 2.3 mmHg and in elderlies (aged > = 60 years) by 9.5 mmHg. The aim of this study was to assess the cost-effectiveness of this salt reduction program. Methods: Costs of the intervention were assessed using an ingredients approach to identify resource use. A trial-based incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was estimated based on the observed effectiveness in lowering SBP. A Markov model was used to estimate the long-term cost-effectiveness of the intervention, and then based on population data, extrapolated to a scenario where the program is scaled up nationwide. Findings were presented in terms of an incremental cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY). The perspective was that of the health sector. Results: The intervention cost Int$19.04 per family and yielded an ICER of Int$2.74 (90% CI: 1.17–12.30) per mmHg reduction of SBP in all participants (combining children and adult participants together) compared with control group. If scaled up nationwide for 10 years and assumed deterioration in treatment effect of 50% over this period, it would reach 165 million families and estimated to avert 42,720 acute myocardial infarction deaths and 107,512 stroke deaths in China. This would represent a gain of 635,816 QALYs over 10-year time frame, translating into Int$1,358 per QALY gained. Conclusion: Based on WHO-CHOICE criteria, our analysis demonstrated that the proposed salt reduction strategy is highly cost-effective, and if scaled up nationwide, the benefits could be substantial. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "Salt-Blood Pressure Hypothesis" states that an increase in the intake of salt leads to an increased in blood pressure and subsequently increases the risk for cardiovascular events, which has been a point of contention for decades. This article covers the history and some of the key players pertaining to "The Salt Wars" during the first half of the 1900s, both in Europe and in the United States. Early studies finding benefits with salt restriction in those with hypertension were based on uncontrolled case reports. The overall evidence in the first half of the 1900s suggests that a low-salt diet was not a reasonable strategy for treating hypertension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our study estimated salt intake, examined the association between blood pressure (BP) and salt intake, and explored the socioeconomic variations in salt intake among administrators (government employees). This is a cross-sectional study. We studied 168 randomly selected administrators aged 30-60 years attached to government offices in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Self-administered questionnaire gathered information on socio-demographic, work-related information, lifestyle practices, and medical history. BP, 24-hour urine collection, and anthropometric indices were measured. Mean salt intake levels measured by 24-hour Sodium (Na) excretion in hypertensives and non-hypertensives were 202.56 (SD ± 85.45) mmol/day and 176.79 (SD ± 82.02) mmol/day, respectively. A 100-mmol increase in sodium was associated with an average increase of 3.1 (95 per cent CI 2-4.2) mmHg in systolic BP and 1.8 (95 per cent CI 0.89-2.6) mmHg in diastolic BP. Higher salt intake was found in managerial assistants (12.38 ± 5.0 g) compared with senior officers (10.84 ± 4.9 g). Salt intake among these administrators was alarmingly high. High salt intake was positively associated with hypertension and more prevalent in lower socioeconomic strata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal areas of Bangladesh have been facing increasing salinity of surface water and groundwater. This study provides the approximate scope of the problem in a coastal area of southeastern Bangladesh by using less-accurate, but lower-cost salinity measuring devices that enable local people to assess the situation. Ten local women were employed to monitor 10 tube wells each on a weekly basis, from mid-February to mid-May, during the 2016 dry season. Geographical Information System and time series clustering were used to visualize the spatial distribution and seasonal change of the salinity levels. In addition, the tube well users were asked about the salt consumption in their daily diet. One-third of the monitored tube wells were found to contain more sodium than the tolerable level in terms of taste suggested by the World Health Organization. However, the mean salinity level across all monitored tube wells was much lower. The salinity level varied depending on the depth of the tube wells rather than their locations or altitudes, and those deeper than 200 m were likely to be salt free. The results of the diet survey showed that wealthier households tended to use more salt in their daily diets, but at the same time they tended to have deeper tube wells that are less likely to contain high levels of sodium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Excessive oral salt intake can induce hypertension. According to previous studies, the prevalence of hypertension is higher in Myanmar than in Korea. We postulated that Myanmar adults had higher salt taste thresholds and eat much saltier food. This study aimed to compare salt taste thresholds and salt usage behaviour scores between adults in Myanmar and Korea.Methods and Study Design: This cross-sectional study enrolled patients who visited volunteer medical service clinics at Ansung in Korea and Hlegu and Bago in Myanmar in August 2014. We measured the vital signs, heights, and weights of each patient and evaluated detection thresholds, recognition thresholds, and salt preferences. All patients underwent urinalysis and spot urine Na tests. Additionally, they each completed a salt usage behaviour questionnaire.Results: A total of 131 patients were enrolled, including 64 Myanmarese patients and 67 Korean patients. Blood pressure was significantly higher in the Myanmarese than in the Koreans. Detection and recognition thresholds, salt preferences, and spot urine sodium and salt usage behaviour scores were also higher in the Myanmarese than in the Korean subjects. We calculated correlation coefficients between systolic blood pressure and parameters that were related to salt intake. The detection and recognition thresholds were significantly correlated with systolic blood pressure.Conclusion: All parameters related to salt intake, including detection and recognition thresholds, salt preference, salt usage behaviour scores and spot urine sodium concentrations, are significantly higher in Myanmarese than in Korean individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Many studies showed an association between dietary salt intake, blood pressure and increased CVD risk. The potential reason may be related to vascular structural and functional changes, through alterations in endothelial function. The central retinal arteriolar equivalent and urinary albumin reflected vascular endothelial dysfunction in different part of the body. The urinary sodium-creatinine ratio of causal urine specimens could represent the 24-h urinary sodium intake to estimate sodium intake. Methods: The 24-h sodium excretion was estimated by urinary sodium-creatinine ratio. Urinary albumin-creatinine ratio (UACR), reflecting renal arterial damage, was also determined. The central retinal arteriolar equivalent (CRAE) was detected by fundus photography and was further analyzed by semi-quantitative software. Results: Participants included 951 hypertensive patients with the average sodium excretion of 11.62 ± 3.01 g. The sodium excretion was significantly higher (P < 0.01) in the hypertensive as compared to that of the non-hypertensive participants. Prevalence of hypertension was increased with increasing sodium excretion. The sodium excretion was positively correlated with systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), respectively (r = 0.20 and 0.14; P < 0.01). Furthermore, UACR and CRAE were significantly (P < 0.01) different within the sodium excretion quartiles (Q1-Q4). After adjusting the confounding variables, such as age and sex, the binary logistic regression analysis showed that sodium excretion was an independent factor of UACR and CRAE (P < 0.01). Conclusion: Our results suggest that sodium excretion in the hypertensive participants were higher. The high sodium excretion was related with the renal arterial damage as well as retinal arteriolar changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents case study of a Japanese family with renal pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 (PHA1) and mutation in Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 3 Group C Member 2 (NR3C2) mineralocorticoid receptor gene. It mentions that laboratory testing for proband Japanese boy showed hyponatremia and hyperkalemia without metabolic acidosis. It also mentions an identical mutation in mother of the patient who never exhibited symptoms of PHA1.

Introduction: Iodine deficiency disorder remains one of the major public health problems, despite it being easily preventable. Initially thought as the disorder of Himalayan goiter belt, the disorder has been found to have a pan-India presence. The study was planned with the aim to assess the prevalence of goiter among 6-12 years school-going children and to identify levels of iodine in salt consumed at the household level in the study area. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted among 3955 school-going (2162 children from Rajouri and 1793 children from Poonch) children age 6-12 years in Rajouri and Poonch districts of Jammu Province. The children were examined clinically to detect and grade the goiter. Salt samples were collected from subsample (n = 400) to estimate iodine content in the salt. Results: The prevalence of goiter in the study population was found to be 18.87% and 9.70% in Rajouri and Poonch districts, respectively. Goiter prevalence was higher in 9-12 years age group as compared to 6-9 years age group and the difference in goiter prevalence in males of these two age groups was statistically significant (P = 0.02). Estimation of iodine content of the salt samples revealed that all of them (100%) had adequate iodine content. Conclusion: Despite the implementation of Universal Iodization Program and adequate content of iodine in salt consumed by the families, the goiter prevalence in both the districts is high. The future research should focus on identifying the reasons for this high prevalence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The aim of this studywas to analyse the influence of desalting temperature, fish thickness and desalting time on themass transfer kinetics during the cod desalting process by physico-chemical analyses. RESULTS: Both water uptake and salt loss increased with increasing temperature (15 °C>10 °C>5 °C) up to 24h in 'thicker' pieces. The equilibrium achievementwas faster in 'thinner' pieces and alsowith increasing temperature. Longer desalting times at 10 °C can be a good practice to be used during cod desalting at an industrial scale in order to obtain commercial products with higher yields. The fastermass transfer during desalting of 'thinner' pieces appears to followthree periods as a result of diffusion of the components (water, NaCl, and soluble proteins) because of the concentration differences, and pressure gradients due to expansion/shrinkage of the proteinmatrix, which is dependent on theNaCl content. The refractive index can be used by industry as an indirect measurement to determine themoment at which the 'thicker' samples are near the ZNaCl = YNaCl equilibrium. CONCLUSION: Optimum combinations between the process variables analysed are essential in order to speed up the mass transfer kinetics during cod desalting at an industrial scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blood pressure exhibits substantial short- and long-term variability ( BPV). We assessed the hypothesis that the complexity of beat-to-beat BPV will be differentially altered in salt-sensitive hypertensive Dahl rats ( SS) versus rats protected from salt-induced hypertension ( SSBN13) maintained on high-salt versus low-salt diet. Beat-to-beat systolic and diastolic BP series from nine SS and six SSBN13 rats () were analyzed following 9 weeks on low salt and repeated after 2 weeks on high salt. BP complexity was quantified by detrended fluctuation analysis ( DFA), short- and long-range scaling exponents ( αS and αL), sample entropy (SampEn), and traditional standard deviation ( SD) and coefficient of variation ( CV(%)). Mean systolic and diastolic BP increased on high-salt diet ( P < 0.01) particularly for SS rats. SD and CV(%) were similar across groups irrespective of diet. Salt-sensitive and -protected rats exhibited similar complexity indices on low-salt diet. On high salt, (1) SS rats showed increased scaling exponents or smoother, systolic ( P = 0.007 [ αL]) and diastolic ( P = 0.008 [ αL]) BP series; (2) salt-protected rats showed lower SampEn (less complex) systolic and diastolic BP ( P = 0.046); and (3) compared to protected SSBN13 rats, SS showed higher αL for systolic ( P = 0.01) and diastolic ( P = 0.005) BP. Hypertensive SS rats are more susceptible to high salt with a greater rise in mean BP and reduced complexity. Comparable mean pressures in sensitive and protective rats when on low-salt diet coupled with similar BPV dynamics suggest a protective role of low-salt intake in hypertensive rats. This effect likely reflects better coupling of biologic oscillators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, we have shown that high dietary salt intake aggravates T helper cell (Th) 17 responses and neuroinflammation. Here, we employed in vitro assays for myeloid dendritic cell (mDC) maturation, DC cytokine production, T cell activation and ex vivo analyses in murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) to investigate whether the salt effect on Th17 cells is further mediated through DCs in vivo . In cell culture, an excess of 40 mM sodium chloride did neither affect the generation, maturation nor the function of DCs, but, in different assays, significantly increased Th17 differentiation. During the initiation phase of MOG 35–55 EAE, we did not observe altered DC frequencies or co-stimulatory capacities in lymphoid organs, while IL-17A production and Th17 cells in the spleen were significantly increased. Complementary ex vivo analyses of the spinal cord during the effector phase of EAE showed increased frequencies of Th17 cells, but did not reveal differences in phenotypes of CNS invading DCs. Finally, adaption of transgenic mice harboring a MOG specific T cell receptor to a high-salt diet led to aggravated clinical disease only after active immunization. Wild-type mice adapted to a high-salt diet in the effector phase of EAE, bypassing the priming phase of T cells, only displayed mildly aggravated disease. In summary, our data argue for a direct effect of NaCl on Th17 cells in neuroinflammation rather than an effect primarily exerted via DCs. These data may further fuel our understanding on the dietary impact on different immune cell subsets in autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Dietary salt reduction is included in the top five priority actions for non-communicable disease control internationally. We therefore aimed to identify health gain and cost impacts of achieving a national target for sodium reduction, along with component targets in different food groups.Methods: We used an established dietary sodium intervention model to study 10 interventions to achieve sodium reduction targets. The 2011 New Zealand (NZ) adult population (2.3 million aged 35+ years) was simulated over the remainder of their lifetime in a Markov model with a 3 % discount rate.Results: Achieving an overall 35 % reduction in dietary salt intake via implementation of mandatory maximum levels of sodium in packaged foods along with reduced sodium from fast foods/restaurant food and discretionary intake (the "full target"), was estimated to gain 235,000 QALYs over the lifetime of the cohort (95 % uncertainty interval [UI]: 176,000 to 298,000). For specific target components the range was from 122,000 QALYs gained (for the packaged foods target) down to the snack foods target (6100 QALYs; and representing a 34-48 % sodium reduction in such products). All ten target interventions studied were cost-saving, with the greatest costs saved for the mandatory "full target" at NZ$1260 million (US$820 million). There were relatively greater health gains per adult for men and for Māori (indigenous population).Conclusions: This work provides modeling-level evidence that achieving dietary sodium reduction targets (including specific food category targets) could generate large health gains and cost savings for a national health sector. Demographic groups with the highest cardiovascular disease rates stand to gain most, assisting in reducing health inequalities between sex and ethnic groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: High salt consumption is an important risk factor of elevated blood pressure. In Bangladesh about 20 million people are at high risk of hypertension due to climate change induced saline intrusion in water. The objective of this study is to assess beliefs, perceptions, and practices associated with salt consumption in coastal Bangladesh. Methods: The study was conducted in Chakaria, Bangladesh between April-June 2011. It was a cross sectional mixed method study. For the qualitative study 6 focus group discussions, 8 key informant interviews, 60 free listing exercises, 20 ranking exercises and 10 observations were conducted. 400 adults were randomly selected for quantitative survey. For analysis we used SPSS for quantitative data, and Anthropac and Nvivo for qualitative data. Results: Salt was described as an essential component of food with strong cultural and religious roots. People described both health benefits and risks related to salt intake. The overall risk perception regarding excessive salt consumption was low and respondents believed that the cooking process can render the salt harmless. Respondents were aware that salt is added in many foods even if they do not taste salty but did not recognize that salt can occur naturally in both foods and water. Conclusions: In the study community people had low awareness of the risks associated with excess salt consumption and salt reduction strategies were not high in their agenda. The easy access to and low cost of salt as well as unrecognised presence of salt in drinking water has created an environment conducive to excess salt consumption. It is important to design general messages related to salt reduction and test tailored strategies especially for those at high risk of hypertension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A relationship of blood uric acid (UA) with hypertension and cardiovascular risk is under debate thus salt intake is hypothesized to contribute to such associations. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, stratified cluster random sampling elicited a sample of 1805 Kazakhs with 92.4% compliance. Hypertension and moderate-or-high total cardiovascular risk (mTCR) were defined according to guidelines. Sodium intake was assessed by urinary sodium excretion. Prevalence ratios (PRs) were used to express associations of UA with hypertension and mTCR. Results: In the highest tertile of sodium intake in women, the adjusted PRs (95% confidence intervals) of low to high quartiles compared with the lowest quartile of UA, were 1.22(0.78–1.91), 1.18(0.75–1.85), and 1.65(1.09–2.51) for hypertension and 1.19(0.74–1.90), 1.39(0.91–2.11), and 1.65(1.10–2.47) for mTCR (P for trend <0.05). However, these findings were not shown for other sodium intake levels. There were similar results in men. PRs markedly increased with a concomitant increase in UA and sodium intake and there was a significant interaction (P = 0.010) for mTCR with PRs of 1.69(1.10–2.60) for men and 3.70(2.09–6.52) for women in those with the highest compared with the lowest quartile of UA and tertile of sodium intake. Similar findings were shown for hypertension. Conclusions: This study implied that a high salt intake may enhance the associations of UA with hypertension and cardiovascular risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The synthesis of arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the supraoptic nucleus ( SON) and paraventricular nucleus ( PVN) of the hypothalamus is sensitive to increased plasma osmolality and a decreased blood volume, and thus is robustly increased by both dehydration (increased plasma osmolality and decreased blood volume) and salt loading (increased plasma osmolality). Both stimuli result in functional remodelling of the SON and PVN, a process referred to as functional-related plasticity. Such plastic changes in the brain have recently been associated with altered patterns of DNA methylation at CpG (cytosine-phosphate-guanine) residues, a process considered to be important for the regulation of gene transcription. In this regard, the proximal Avp promoter contains a number of CpG sites and is recognised as one of four CpG islands for the Avp gene, suggesting that methylation may be regulating Avp transcription. In the present study, we show that, in an immortalised hypothalamic cell line 4B, the proximal Avp promoter is highly methylated, and treatment of these cells with the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-Aza-2′-deoxycytidine to demethylate DNA dramatically increases basal and stimulated Avp biosynthesis. We report no changes in the expression of DNA methyltransferases, Dnmt1 and Dnmt3a, whereas there is decreased expression of the demethylating enzyme ten-eleven-translocation 2, Tet2, in the SON by dehydration and salt loading. We found higher methylation of the SON Avp promoter in dehydrated but not salt-loaded rats. By analysis of individual CpG sites, we observed hypomethylation, hypermethylation and no change in methylation of specific CpGs in the SON Avp promoter of the dehydrated rat. Using reporter gene assays, we show that mutation of individual CpGs can result in altered Avp promoter activity. We propose that methylation of the SON Avp promoter is necessary to co-ordinate the duel inputs of increased plasma osmolality and decreased blood volume on Avp transcription in the chronically dehydrated rat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the ventral glial limitans ( VGL) of the supraoptic nucleus ( SON) of the rat, a unique astrocyte type is found with an ability to undergo striking morphological plasticity in response to a wide range of physiological stimulations such as chronic hypernatraemia. This includes a thinning of the VGL, which contains the somata and proximal processes of these astrocytes, as well as an almost complete withdrawal of their vertically-oriented distal processes. Currently, there is little information available on the types of astrocytes that reside in the SON- VGL and which of these exhibit state-dependent structural plasticity. To address this, we enabled the visualisation of single SON- VGL glia using two novel cell labelling techniques with fluorescence microscopy. First, we used an inducible genetic reporter mouse line that allowed the specific labelling of a low density of astrocytes expressing glutamate and aspartate transporter ( GLAST)/excitatory amino acid transporter 1. This approach revealed a high degree of variability in the morphology of mouse SON- VGL astrocytes, in contrast to what has been reported for cortical astrocytes. Next, we used the DiOlistlic labelling approach to label single glial cells with DiI in the SON- VGL of rats. Astrocytes observed using this approach shared the morphological features of GLAST-expressing astrocytes in the mouse SON- VGL. Specific structural aspects of these cells were modified by chronic hypernatraemia achieved by 7-day salt loading. Notably, the average area of cells exhibiting protoplasmic features was significantly reduced in the horizontal plane, and the size of varicosities present on fibrous projections was significantly enlarged. These observations indicate that novel cell labelling methods can significantly advance our understanding of SON- VGL cells and reveal specific forms of morphological plasticity that can be driven by chronic hypernatraemia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]