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There is growing evidence of widespread use of torture among political prisoners throughout the world. Medical personnel frequently become involved, sometimes directly, sometimes peripherally as in the examination or treatment of such prisoners. Physicians themselves may become victims of torture when the state attempts to subvert the doctor-patient relation for political purposes. Furthermore, recent studies demonstrate long lasting medical and psychologic effects of torture. For these reasons, physicians have a special opportunity and ethical obligation to resist and oppose torture as well as to support physicians whose lives or professional careers are jeopardized by their refusal to participate in torture. Codes of medical ethics need strengthening to provide clear guidance for the physician who becomes aware of or actively involved in these brutal practices.

Low doses of ionizing radiation are widely believed to produce effects similar to those observed at high doses; only the incidence (i.e. risk) varies with dose. Furthermore, it is assumed that effects other than those observed at high doses will not occur at low doses. Yet there have been frequent reports in the literature of "anomalies" at low doses--effects unrelated to and unpredictable from the high-dose exposure experiences. These have been referred to as "hormetic" effects. These effects have their parallel with other hormetic effects seen with many other agents generally considered toxic. It is postulated that hormesis has previously received scant attention because it conflicts with the conventional radiation science paradigm.

The author reviews late somatic and genetic effects of radiation exposure. Emphasis is on the human experience, but includes animal experience where necessary. Particular attention is directed to dose-response relationships, and to studies of low dose effects, where they exist. It is concluded that evidence is inconclusive with respect to effects in the range of exposures permitted by current radiation standards.