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To bring to fruition the capability of nature-based solutions (NBS) in mitigating hydro-meteorological risks (HMRs) and facilitate their widespread uptake require a consolidated knowledge-base related to their monitoring methods, efficiency, functioning and the ecosystem services they provide. We attempt to fill this knowledge gap by reviewing and compiling the existing scientific literature on methods, including ground-based measurements (e.g. gauging stations, wireless sensor network) and remote sensing observations (e.g. from topographic LiDAR, multispectral and radar sensors) that have been used and/or can be relevant to monitor the performance of NBS against five HMRs: floods, droughts, heatwaves, landslides, and storm surges and coastal erosion. These can allow the mapping of the risks and impacts of the specific hydro-meteorological events. We found that the selection and application of monitoring methods mostly rely on the particular NBS being monitored, resource availability (e.g. time, budget, space) and type of HMRs. No standalone method currently exists that can allow monitoring the performance of NBS in its broadest view. However, equipments, tools and technologies developed for other purposes, such as for ground-based measurements and atmospheric observations, can be applied to accurately monitor the performance of NBS to mitigate HMRs. We also focused on the capabilities of passive and active remote sensing, pointing out their associated opportunities and difficulties for NBS monitoring application. We conclude that the advancement in airborne and satellite-based remote sensing technology has signified a leap in the systematic monitoring of NBS performance, as well as provided a robust way for the spatial and temporal comparison of NBS intervention versus its absence. This improved performance measurement can support the evaluation of existing uncertainty and scepticism in selecting NBS over the artificially built concrete structures or grey approaches by addressing the questions of performance precariousness. Remote sensing technical developments, however, take time to shift toward a state of operational readiness for monitoring the progress of NBS in place (e.g. green NBS growth rate, their changes and effectiveness through time). More research is required to develop a holistic approach, which could routinely and continually monitor the performance of NBS over a large scale of intervention. This performance evaluation could increase the ecological and socio-economic benefits of NBS, and also create high levels of their acceptance and confidence by overcoming potential scepticism of NBS implementations. © 2021 The Author(s)

Nature-based solutions (NBS) for hydro-meteorological risks (HMRs) reduction and management are becoming increasingly popular, but challenges such as the lack of well-recognised standard methodologies to evaluate their performance and upscale their implementation remain. We systematically evaluate the current state-of-the art on the models and tools that are utilised for the optimum allocation, design and efficiency evaluation of NBS for five HMRs (flooding, droughts, heatwaves, landslides, and storm surges and coastal erosion). We found that methods to assess the complex issue of NBS efficiency and cost-benefits analysis are still in the development stage and they have only been implemented through the methodologies developed for other purposes such as fluid dynamics models in micro and catchment scale contexts. Of the reviewed numerical models and tools MIKE-SHE, SWMM (for floods), ParFlow-TREES, ACRU, SIMGRO (for droughts), WRF, ENVI-met (for heatwaves), FUNWAVE-TVD, BROOK90 (for landslides), TELEMAC and ADCIRC (for storm surges) are more flexible to evaluate the performance and effectiveness of specific NBS such as wetlands, ponds, trees, parks, grass, green roof/walls, tree roots, vegetations, coral reefs, mangroves, sea grasses, oyster reefs, sea salt marshes, sandy beaches and dunes. We conclude that the models and tools that are capable of assessing the multiple benefits, particularly the performance and cost-effectiveness of NBS for HMR reduction and management are not readily available. Thus, our synthesis of modelling methods can facilitate their selection that can maximise opportunities and refute the current political hesitation of NBS deployment compared with grey solutions for HMR management but also for the provision of a wide range of social and economic co-benefits. However, there is still a need for bespoke modelling tools that can holistically assess the various components of NBS from an HMR reduction and management perspective. Such tools can facilitate impact assessment modelling under different NBS scenarios to build a solid evidence base for upscaling and replicating the implementation of NBS. © 2021 The Author(s)

The efficiency of breeding can be improved by employing a number of genetic diversity measures of the crop germplasm. Genetic diversity and relatedness of 24 Bambara groundnut accessions (Vigna subterranean L. Verdc.) were estimated using 36 morphological characters, 201 Diversity Array Technology (DArT) and 65 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers to assess the relationships between the material and also between the three marker types. These accessions were selected to represent the diversity within cultivated Bambara groundnut germplasm. A broader group of 119 Bambara groundnut accessions (87 from International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and 37 from University of Nottingham stocks; three seeds per accession) were planted in an unheated glasshouse at University of Nottingham in May, 2008. Data on the variation for morphological and agronomic traits were recorded following the IPGRI descriptors (IITA, BAMNET (2000). Samples were also analysed with microsatellite markers which have been characterised in this project. In addition, DNA extracted from the 119 accessions was sent for DArT analysis. This study has demonstrated the utility of the three marker types for genetic diversity and relatedness analysis. The genetic distance (GD) among the landraces and the first two axes for the principal component analysis (PCA) were obtained. The highest average genetic distance (GD) was obtained using morphological marker (0.55) followed by DArT (0.43) and SSR marker (0.25). The estimated values of the genetic relationship between all the markers were significantly correlated at (P

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean L. (Verdc.)) is an underutilised African legume crop which shows a high degree of drought tolerance. It continues to be an important leguminous crop in tropical Africa and is grown mainly by women who are small-scale farmers in Africa under traditional low input agricultural systems. It is grown mainly for its protein and carbohydrate, as a fixer of agricultural nitrogen and for its high levels of drought tolerance. Genetic studies into this species could provide important data for breeding programmes and to enhance food security in sub-Saharan Africa. The main project work was to construct two initial genetic linkage maps for Bambara groundnut and to carry out a trait QTL analysis. Genomic DNA was extracted from 73 bulked lines (effectively F3) derived from a cross between the DipC and Tiga necaru landraces. A set of 94 pre-tested SSR primers designed from a 454-sequenced microsatellite-enriched library were tested for segregation in this cross. Thirty primers were polymorphic and revealed that the residual heterozygosity in this population was around 25%, consistent with an F3 population. DArT markers for Bambara groundnut were previously developed and 236 polymorphic markers have also been applied in this study. The genetic map consisted of 231 markers in 25 linkage groups of two or more linked markers, totalling 498cM and covering a predicted 44% of Bambara groundnut genome. The high marker-marker linkage (at 87%) suggests a more comprehensive coverage. Nine QTL loci were identified on 7 LGs. A major QTL was identified for internode length on LG3, explaining 41% of phenotypic variation. The ‘Narrow’ map, in contrast with wide cross population, was constructed from two domesticated landraces and would be expected to segregate for agronomically important traits, rather than domestication traits. The development of molecular tools for mapping and QTL analysis potentially allows more rapid breeding progress to be achieved in this species.

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.) is an underutilised, drought tolerant legume that has the potential to form an important part of Food Security for the coming decades. The challenges facing farmers to produce enough food for the growing world population – particularly that of climatic instability – are well documented and together represent probably one of the biggest challenges humanity has faced. Our extreme reliance on a limited number of staple (often nonindigenous and sometimes also poorly adapted) crops represents a clear vulnerability. This can be partly reduced by the development of alternative crops. These currently underutilised crops often have beneficial characteristics not found in conventional main crops and if these traits address either biotic or abiotic stresses in a sustainable way, then there is the potential for agricultural diversification. There are a number of stumbling blocks to developing such crops, including; poor yields, unadapted crop features, limited processing knowledge, few value-added products, poorly developed transport chains and markets, negative cultural perceptions and little perceived profit margin for commercial breeders. An integrated approach is needed to begin to address these problems. As part of this, we have focused on the application of molecular genetics to Bambara groundnut and the opportunities to exploit knowledge from other species, new technologies and new approaches, to establish a framework for genetic improvement through breeding. We also try to draw out lessons from our work in Bambara groundnut which may be relevant in other underutilised species, to try to contribute to the development of a generic approach (and hopefully, a faster and cheaper approach) to tackling these same questions in other underutilised species. In this paper we ask what is the fundamental information we need about the breeding system of an underutilised species and how could this alter our genetic improvement, using Bambara groundnut as an example. INTRODUCTION Developing new crops and expanding the range and level of production and use of existing underutilised crops is a major challenge which could help to generate more resilient agriculture. While this does not underestimate the critical importance of improvements to staple crops, such developments could provide alternatives where climate, demographic or soil nutritional changes prevent current staples from being economically cultivated in future. Bambara groundnut is an indigenous African legume with good drought tolerance which is still grown widely in sub-Saharan Africa, albeit at Proc. 2 Int. Symp. on Underutilized Plants Species “Crops for the Future – Beyond Food Security” Eds.: F. Massawe et al. Acta Hort. 979, ISHS 2013 452 low levels. Many such crops exists which have potential to be more utilised than they currently are, but establishing extensive research programmes on a large number of underutilised crops is not feasible, either in terms of capacity or in terms of finance. BAMLINK was an EU FP6 INCO-DEV programme which aimed to evaluate the use of Bambara groundnut at the molecular, eco-physiological, nutritional and end-user levels to try to identify the constraints to enhanced uptake of this crop for a range of uses. We are also attempting to use this crop as an exemplar for other underutilised crops, to understand what we need to know about a crop to be able to make progress with it. Here, we specifically look at our results for the molecular analysis of this crop to identify what information we need to understand to be able to make focused progress in a generic crop. In Bambara groundnut we have generated within species data, where specific tools were needed for subsequent quality control and breeding and have also applied data across species to try to link this underutilised species with available data from major species. This article focuses on the generation of data within species and how this knowledge has allowed us to map out breeding and genetic improvement options within Bambara groundnut, which could allow a strategic approach to be developed for other underutilised species. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant Materials All Bambara groundnut genotypes analysed were drawn from either the collection at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria) or from the Nottingham University stock collections (Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham University, UK). The 24 standard landrace accessions (single genotypes) used for characterising the SSR markers are given in Table 1. Fifty individual seed of UniSwaRed and S19-3 landraces, grown in the Tropical Crops Research Unit (TCRU) glasshouses in 2007, were leaf sampled. DNA was extracted from individual genotypes using standard approaches and all 100 samples were screened against three SSR markers from Basu et al. (2007). Microsatellites were labelled, amplified and analysed as described below. The Correspondence Analysis was generated using the defaults in MVSP v.3 (Kovachs Computing Services) and the first two axes plotted. Development of Microsatellites for Bambara Groundnut Three approaches were used to develop within species microsatellite markers: 1. Development of a genomic fragment microsatellite-enriched library, essentially according to Basu et al. (2007). Sanger sequencing of clones containing repeat sequences was used to allow the construction of primers flanking the microsatellite repeat sequences. 2. The amplified PCR products from the adaptor bearing insert of the library from 1) was sequenced using part of a 1/16 Roche 454 pyrosequencing run (9 species libraries with single base changes in the adaptors were mixed before sequencing; Eurofins MWG). 3. A plate of 454 pyrosequencing (Titanium reagents) from the leaf transcriptome of a single plant of the Namibian accession S19-3 (50 days after sowing; 28°C/23°C cycle with 12 hours photoperiod, planted directly into a sandy loam) was produced. The data were assembled (Newbler, by Deep Seq, University of Nottingham) and microsatellite repeats within the transcriptome had primer pairs designed to them, were possible. In each of the three cases, the MISA.pl script (IPK, Gartersleben, Germany; pgrc.pik-garterleben.de/misa/misa.html) was used to characterise the microsatellites present. Primers were designed using the Primer3 software (frodo.wi.mit.edu) including a minimum primer length of 24 nucleotides and optimal length of 27. For all primers an M13 extension was added to the forward primer of the pair to allow third primer labelling (Schuelke, 2000), with a dye-labelled (Well-RED blue; Sigma-Aldrich) to be incorporated allowing fragment size assessment on a Beckmann CEQ 8000. PCR

The successful development of any underutilized crop requires a multidisciplinary approach. BAMLINK, the third EU-funded project on bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.), spans research from molecular genetics through field evaluation to product development incorporating end-user needs. Partners include four African, three Indian, and three European institutions that are evaluating the crop for both drought-prone African environments, where it is currently cultivated, and for potential new production environments in India. Underpinning this effort is a genetic analysis of the species. This is not only for specific agronomic traits but also in terms of domestication history and to establish the existing genetic structure available within cultivated and wild material that could be used for breeding. We present data on the underlying genetic structure of bambara groundnut and initial results from Diversity Arrays Technique (DArT) and Massively Parallel Signature Sequencing (MPSS) to investigate changes in gene expression under drought. We also describe microsatellite development, genetic mapping, and QTL analysis in a cross derived from a cultivated landrace and a wild relative. Underpinning all BAMLINK research is an analysis of domesticated bambara groundnut landraces from contrasting environments. The subsequent need to evaluate and accommodate the genetic variability which exists between genotypes of the same landrace in any phenotypic evaluation of that landrace is discussed. Genetic research is presented within an approach that integrates physiology, agronomy, nutrition, modelling, and end-user preferences to identify and overcome bottle-necks to further exploitation of this crop so that the full food security potential of bambara groundnut, especially for water-scarce environments, can be evaluated.

Controlled crosses in bambara groundnut were attempted between a range of thirty-six bambara groundnut landraces (thirty domesticated (V. subterranea var. subterranea) and six wild (V. subterranea var. spontanea)). Ten F-1 seed were produced. Of these, eight germinated producing F-2 populations. On seed set, four populations could be unambiguously confirmed as true crosses by F-3 seed coat colour. A single F-2 population, derived from a domesticated landrace from Botswana (DipC; female parent) crossed with a wild accession collected in Cameroon (VSSP11; male parent) was used to study a range of agronomic and domestication traits. These included; days to emergence, days to flowering, internode (fourth) length at harvest, number of stems per plant, leaf area, Specific Leaf Area (SLA), Carbon Isotope Discrimination (CID), 100 seed weight, testa colour and eye pattern around the hilum. On the basis of variation for internode length and stems per plant, 14 small F-3 families were selected and grown under field conditions to further investigate the genetic basis of the 'spreading' versus 'bunched' plant character, a major difference between wild and cultivated bambara groundnut. Results presented suggest that traits including leaf area, SLA, CID and 100 seed weight are controlled by several genes. In contrast, the variation for traits such as internode length, stems per plant, days to emergence and seed eye pattern around the hilum are likely to be under largely monogenic control. The results of this work are discussed in relation to the domestication of bambara groundnut.

Bambara groundnut is an indigenous African legume crop plant. It is largely grown by subsistence farmers, but can also be used as a cash crop to supplement family income. The fact that it is highly drought tolerant means that it has considerably potential to provide part of food security in regions of the world where water availability is a serious issue. As one part of the international effort to understand and improve this species, we report here the first 10 microsatellite markers derived from bambara groundnut.

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