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Asian soybean rust, caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi Sydow, has been known to occur in the eastern hemisphere for nearly a century. More recently, it was reported from South America in 2002 and the continental United States in Louisiana in November 2004 (1,2). Subsequently, P. pachyrhizi was confirmed in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Florida, Missouri, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Tennessee in 2004. Surveys conducted in North Carolina in late November 2004 failed to detect this pathogen. Symptoms of the disease were first observed on soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) in North Carolina on 25 October 2005 in farmers' fields in the counties of Brunswick, Columbus, and Robeson. Typical pustules and urediniospores were readily apparent on infected leaves when viewed with a dissecting microscope. Urediniospores were obovoid to broadly ellipsoidal, hyaline to pale yellowish brown with a minutely echinulate thin wall, and measured 18 to 37 × 15 to 24 μm. This morphology is typical of soybean rust caused by P. pachyrhizi or P. meibomiae, the latter is a less aggressive species causing soybean rust in the western hemisphere (1). DNA was extracted from leaves containing sori using the Qiagen DNeasy Plant Mini kit (Valencia, CA). P. pachyrhizi was detected using a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol that differentiates between P. pachyrhizi and P. meibomiae in a Cepheid thermocycler (Sunnyvale, CA) with appropriate positive and negative controls. The PCR master mix was modified to include OmniMix beads (Cepheid). Field diagnosis of P. pachyrhizi was confirmed by the USDA/APHIS on 28 October 2005. Soybean rust was identified in subsequent surveys of soybean fields and leaf samples submitted by North Carolina Cooperative Extension Agents in an additional 15 counties. These samples also were assayed using a traditional PCR protocol and by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay protocol included in the EnviroLogix QualiPlate kit (Portland, ME) for soybean rust. Ten soybean specimens from 10 sites were confirmed positive by these methods. Disease was not found on three kudzu samples, although one kudzu sample was adjacent to a soybean field that was positive for P. pachyrhizi. Although soybean rust was eventually detected in 18 North Carolina counties in 2005, no soybean yield loss occurred since the pathogen was detected when more than 80% of the soybean crop was mature. To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. pachyrhizi in North Carolina and the northern most find on soybean in the continental United States in 2005. References: (1) R. D. Frederick et al. Phytopathology 92:217, 2002. (2) R. W. Schneider et al. Plant Dis. 89:774 2005.

Asian soybean rust, caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi H. Sydow & Sydow, was first detected in the continental United States in soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) in Louisiana on 6 November 2004 (3) and in kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata) in Florida during February 2005 (1). Soybean rust was first confirmed in North Carolina in commercial soybean fields in Brunswick, Columbus, and Robeson counties on 25 October 2005 (2). Subsequently, the disease was detected in soybean in 18 counties, but not in kudzu, even when it was growing adjacent to infected soybean. During 2006, soybean rust was first detected in North Carolina in soybean on 14 September 2006 from a sample from Columbus County that was submitted to the North Carolina State University Plant Disease and Insect Clinic (NCSU-PDIC). Thus, the first detection of soybean rust in North Carolina occurred almost 6 weeks earlier in 2006 than in 2005. Subsequently, in 2006, soybean rust was found in soybean in 42 counties in North Carolina through survey, sentinel plot monitoring, and samples submitted to the NCSU-PDIC. In addition, what appeared to be soybean rust was observed in two samples of kudzu collected on 3 and 6 November 2006 from Moore (35.28313°N, 79.38020°W) and Johnston (35.42742°N, 78.18154°W) counties of North Carolina. The diagnosis of P. pachyrhizi in kudzu was confirmed visually and by ELISA protocol supplied with the EnviroLogix QualiPlate kit (Portland, ME). ELISA tests for each kudzu sample were run in triplicate. PCR was also conducted on infected kudzu samples with a protocol previously reported (1). The PCR master mix that was used came from a dilution scheme based on previous PCR work completed by G. Z. Abad. A total of 24 reactions were run, including four 1-kb molecular markers, four positive controls, four negative controls, and four infected kudzu leaf tissue samples. The results of all diagnostic techniques confirmed the presence of P. pachyrhizi in diseased kudzu. To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. pachyrhizi in kudzu in North Carolina. References: (1) P. F. Harmon et al. Online publication. doi:10.1094/PHP-2005-0613-01-RS. Plant Health Progress, 2005. (2) S. R. Koenning et al. Plant Dis. 90:973, 2006. (3) R. W. Schneider et al. Plant Dis. 89:774, 2005.

Stunted cotton plants (Gossypium hirsutum L. cvs. PHY 375 WR and PHY 565 WR) from two separate fields near Goldsboro in Wayne County, North Carolina were collected by the NCDA&CS Agronomic Division nematode lab for nematode assay and identification in December 2011. The galls on cotton plants were very large in comparison with those commonly associated with Meloidogyne incognita Kofoid and White (Chitwood) infected cotton. In August 2012, the lab also received heavily galled roots of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. 7732) from Wayne and Johnston counties. Population densities of the 2nd-stage juveniles ranged from 150 to 3,800 per 500 cc soil. Female perineal patterns were similar to M. incognita, but PCR and DNA sequencing matched that of M. enterolobii Yang and Eisenback (4). DNA sequences of ribosomal DNA small subunit, internal transcribed spacer, large subunit domain 2 and 3, intergeneric spacer, RNA polymerase II large subunit, and histone gene H3, were found to be 100% homologous when comparing populations of M. enterolobii from North Carolina and China. Species identification was also confirmed using PCR by a species-specific SCAR primer set MK7-F/MK7-R (2). M. enterolobii Yang & Eisenback was described in 1983 from a population causing severe damage to pacara earpod tree (Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell.) Morong) in China (4). In 2004, M. mayaguensis Rammah & Hirschmann, a species described from Puerto Rico, was synonymized with M. enterolobii based on esterase phenotype and mitochondrial DNA sequence (3). M. enterolobii is considered to be a highly pathogenic species and has been reported from vegetables, ornamental plants, guava, and weeds in China, Africa, Central and South America, the Caribbean, and Florida in the United States (1,3,4). Of particular concern is its ability to develop on crop genotypes carrying root-knot-nematode resistance genes (Mi-1, Mh, Mir1, N, Tabasco, and Rk) in tobacco, tomato, soybean, potato, cowpea, sweet potato, and cotton. Consequently, this species was added to the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization A2 Alert list in 2010. Two populations of M. enterolobii one from soybean and one from cotton were reared on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. var. lycopersicum) in a greenhouse setting. Eggs were extracted using NaOCl and inoculated, at a rate of 7,000 per 15-cm-diameter clay pot, into a sandy soil mixture (1:1 washed river sand and loamy sand). Tomato, peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), cotton, watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai), pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), and root-knot-susceptible and -resistant tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. cvs. K326 and NC 70, respectively) were transplanted immediately into the infested soil with four replications. Root galls on the host differentials were evaluated after 90 days. Reproduction occurred on all hosts except for peanut, which is consistent with reports for M. enterolobii and M. incognita race 4 (4). Adult females from pepper plants used in the host differential test were sequenced on partial 18S and ITS1 region and confirmed to be M. enterlobii. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a natural infection of North Carolina field crops with M. enterolobii. References: (1) J. Brito et al. J. Nematol. 36:324, 2004. (2) M. S. Tigano et al. Plant Pathol. 59:1054, 2010. (3) J. Xu et al. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 110:309, 2004. (4) B. Yang and J. D. Eisenback. J. Nematol. 15:381, 1983.

Existing crop monitoring programs determine the incidence and distribution of plant diseases and pathogens and assess the damage caused within a crop production region. These programs have traditionally used observed or predicted disease and pathogen data and environmental information to prescribe management practices that minimize crop loss. Monitoring programs are especially important for crops with broad geographic distribution or for diseases that can cause rapid and great economic losses. Successful monitoring programs have been developed for several plant diseases, including downy mildew of cucurbits, Fusarium head blight of wheat, potato late blight, and rusts of cereal crops. A recent example of a successful disease-monitoring program for an economically important crop is the soybean rust (SBR) monitoring effort within North America. SBR, caused by the fungus Phakopsora pachyrhizi, was first identified in the continental United States in November 2004. SBR causes moderate to severe yield losses globally. The fungus produces foliar lesions on soybean (Glycine max) and other legume hosts. P. pachyrhizi diverts nutrients from the host to its own growth and reproduction. The lesions also reduce photosynthetic area. Uredinia rupture the host epidermis and diminish stomatal regulation of transpiration to cause tissue desiccation and premature defoliation. Severe soybean yield losses can occur if plants defoliate during the mid-reproductive growth stages. The rapid response to the threat of SBR in North America resulted in an unprecedented amount of information dissemination and the development of a real-time, publicly available monitoring and prediction system known as the Soybean Rust-Pest Information Platform for Extension and Education (SBR-PIPE). The objectives of this article are (i) to highlight the successful response effort to SBR in North America, and (ii) to introduce researchers to the quantity and type of data generated by SBR-PIPE. Data from this system may now be used to answer questions about the biology, ecology, and epidemiology of an important pathogen and disease of soybean.

Five viruses were previously discovered infecting soybean cyst nematodes (SCN; Heterodera glycines) from greenhouse cultures maintained in Illinois. In this study, the five viruses [ScNV, ScPV, ScRV, ScTV, and SbCNV-5] were detected within SCN greenhouse and field populations from North Carolina (NC) and Missouri (MO). The prevalence and titers of viruses in SCN from 43 greenhouse cultures and 25 field populations were analyzed using qRT-PCR. Viral titers within SCN greenhouse cultures were similar throughout juvenile development, and the presence of viral anti-genomic RNAs within egg, second-stage juvenile (J2), and pooled J3 and J4 stages suggests active viral replication within the nematode. Viruses were found at similar or lower levels within field populations of SCN compared with greenhouse cultures of North Carolina populations. Five greenhouse cultures harbored all five known viruses whereas in most populations a mixture of fewer viruses was detected. In contrast, three greenhouse cultures of similar descent to one another did not possess any detectable viruses and primarily differed in location of the cultures (NC versus MO). Several of these SCN viruses were also detected in Heterodera trifolii (clover cyst) and Heterodera schachtii (beet cyst), but not the other cyst, root-knot, or reniform nematode species tested. Viruses were not detected within soybean host plant tissue. If nematode infection with viruses is truly more common than first considered, the potential influence on nematode biology, pathogenicity, ecology, and control warrants continued investigation.

Production of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) in reduced tillage systems has increased in the United States during the past decade. However, interactions of tillage system and crop rotation have not been thoroughly investigated for large-seeded, Virginia market type peanut. Research was conducted at two locations in North Carolina during 1999 to 2006 to compare yield of corn (Zea mays L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), and peanut in different rotations planted in conventional and reduced tillage. Crop rotation affected peanut yield but did not affect corn or cotton yield. Increasing the number of times corn, cotton, or a combination of these crops were planted between peanut increased peanut yields. Tillage affected cotton and peanut yield but not in every year or at both locations. Yield was similar in conventional and reduced tillage in 8 of 10 comparisons (cotton) and 6 of 8 comparisons (peanut). Crop rotation and tillage did not interact for visual estimates of plant condition of peanut as a result of disease, soil parasitic nematode populations when peanut was planted during the final year of the experiment, crop yield, cumulative net return over the duration of the experiment, or bulk density in the pegging zone during the final year of the experiment. These data suggest that variation in response to rotation and tillage should be expected based on the crop and edaphic and environmental conditions. However, response to rotation and tillage most likely will be independent.

Glyphosate-tolerant transgenic-cotton cultivars were evaluated for tolerance to Hoplolaimus columbus in field experiments conducted from 2001 to 2003. The studies were arranged in a split-plot design that included treatment with 1,3-dichloropropene at 42 liter/ha to establish fumigated versus nonfumigated subplots with cultivars as whole plots. Cotton cultivars were divided by relative maturity into two separate but adjacent experiments in order to facilitate cotton defoliation, with 10 early-maturity and 5 late-maturity cultivars. Fumigation was effective in suppressing H. columbus population densities and increased cotton lint yield. The cultivar-fumigation interaction was significant for early-season cotton cultivars but not for late-season cultivars. A tolerance index ([yield of nontreated/yield of treated] × 100) was used to compare cultivar differences. Both groups of cultivars expressed significant levels of tolerance to H. columbus, but late-season cultivars tended to yield more than early-season cultivars in infested fields.

The soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines, is the most important pathogen of soybean, Glycine max, in North Carolina. Cultural practices are the most effective means of managing this pathogen because a majority of cultivars are susceptible to the races of this nematode that predominate in the state. Resistant and susceptible cultivars were evaluated in 14 H. glycines-infested fields from 1992 to 1999. Resistance in cvs. Hartwig and Delsoy 5710, and line S92-1603 derived from plant introduction (PI) 437654, was highly effective against all populations of H. glycines evaluated in these experiments. Numbers of cysts (cysts and white females) per three plants 28 days after planting and final egg population densities (Pf) were lower than on other cultivars evaluated. Cultivars with SCN resistance derived from PI 90763 were moderately resistant in many of the test fields, but cultivars with Peking-derived resistance were effective at only two locations. Some cultivars with resistance derived from PI 88788 were highly to moderately resistant to races 9 or 14 of SCN, but were not consistently effective against other populations. Hartwig and Delsoy 5710 had low SCN reproductive factors (Rf = egg density at harvest/mean egg density at planting for site) of 0.16 and 0.23 compared with an Rf of 1.9 and 2.19 on the susceptible cvs. Essex and Hutcheson, respectively. In contrast, the Rf on cultivars derived from Peking generally was greater than on susceptible cultivars. Resistant cvs. Hartwig and Delsoy 5710 generally yielded more than susceptible cultivars or cultivars derived from other sources of resistance. The initial inoculum level (Pi) was negatively correlated with soybean seed yield, but cysts 28 days after planting proved to be better at predicting seed yield than Pi. Due to the genetic diversity of H. glycines populations with regard to the ability to parasitize resistant cultivars, cultivars with resistance derived from PI 437654 or other genotypes are needed to manage this nematode in North Carolina.

Cotton is the most important fiber crop in the world, and current U.S. lint production accounts for nearly one quarter of the world supply. The unique role of cotton in world and American history is profound. Primitive cottons have been used in Africa, Asia, and the Americas for millennia. Domestic and international demand for cotton fiber contributed greatly to the westward expansion of the United States, the American Civil War, and the industrial revolution (81). The land area devoted to cotton production in the United States peaked in 1926 with approximately 18 million hectares (Fig. 1). The advent of mechanized farming equipment and the availability of effective, relatively low-cost fertilizers, pesticides, and improved cotton cultivars after World War II allowed the production of significantly greater yields per unit of land area, and hectarage declined. U.S. production of cotton lint in the past 5 years has varied from 3.0 × 10 to 4.4 × 10 kg produced on about 5 million hectares (147). Additionally, cotton seed is a valuable source of vegetable oil and protein used in animal feed, with production of 4.9 × 10 to 5.9 × 10 kg of cotton seed annually. Since World War II, cotton cultivation was increasingly dependent on inputs of chemical pesticides for weed and insect control. Historically, the cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis Boheman, was the most costly pest of cotton in the United States. The combination of crop loss due to this insect directly and the expense for insecticides that was incurred by cotton growers attempting to control it amounted to several billion dollars annually until recently (130). The successful establishment of the Boll Weevil Eradication Program coordinated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in many states in the eastern half of the country has resulted in a reduction in insecticide usage, improved profitability for growers, and has led to a resurgence of cotton production in the Southeast (37). In addition, the current widespread use of transgenic cotton cultivars with resistance to herbicides and/or insects also has greatly reduced the need for inputs of pesticides. Currently, 71% of cotton grown in the United States is herbicide resistant, resistant to lepidopteran insects, or has resistance to both (3). Reductions in pest pressure from weeds and insects as a result of the deployment of transgenic resistance and the boll weevil eradication program have

▪ Abstract Early researchers identified key concepts and developed tactics for multiple-option management of nematodes. Although the emphasis on integrated pest management over the past three decades has promoted strategies and tactics for nematode management, comprehensive studies on the related soil biology–ecology are relatively recent. Traditional management tactics include host resistance (where available), cultural tactics such as rotation with nonhosts, sanitation and avoidance, and destruction of residual crop roots, and the judicious use of nematicides. There have been advances in biological control of nematodes, but field-scale exploitation of this tactic remains to be realized. New technologies and resources are currently becoming central to the development of sustainable systems for nematode-pest-crop management: molecular diagnostics for nematode identification, genetic engineering for host resistance, and the elucidation and application of soil biology for general integrated cropping systems. The latter strategy includes the use of nematode-pest antagonistic cover crops, animal wastes, and limited tillage practices that favor growth-promoting rhizobacteria, earthworms, predatory mites, and other beneficial organisms while suppressing parasitic nematodes and other plant pathogens. Certain rhizobacteria may induce systemic host resistance to nematodes and, in some instances, to foliage pathogens. The systems focusing on soil biology hold great promise for sustainable crop-nematode management, but only a few research programs are currently involved in this labor-intensive endeavor.

Research must focus on management of diseases that cause extensive losses, especially when funds for research are limited. Knowledge of the losses caused by various soybean diseases is essential when prioritizing research budgets. The objective of this project was to compile estimates of soybean yield potential losses caused by diseases for each soybean producing state in the United States from 2006 to 2009. This data is of special interest since the 4-year period summarized in this report, permits an examination of the impact of soybean rust that was first reported in the United States in 2004. Thus, in addition to the goal of providing this information to aid funding agencies and scientists in prioritizing research objectives and budgets, an examination of the impact of soybean rust on soybean yield losses relative to other diseases is warranted. Yield losses caused by individual diseases varied among states and years. Soybean cyst nematode caused more yield losses than any other disease during 2006 to 2009. Seedling diseases, Phytophthora root and stem rot, sudden death syndrome, Sclerotinia stem rot, and charcoal rot ranked in the top six of diseases that caused yield loss during these years. Soybean yield losses due to soybean rust and Sclerotinia stem rot varied greatly over years, especially when compared to other diseases. Accepted for publication 21 October 2010. Published 22 November 2010.

Planting date was used as a variable to determine the effects of time and different environmental conditions on the population dynamics and damage potential of Pratylenchus brachyurus on soybean at two locations in North Carolina. An initial population slightly less than the damage threshold (275 nematodes/500 cm(3) soil) was used to minimize the influence of host damage on this nematode's population dynamics and to gain greater precision in characterizing factors which influence the damage potential of P. brachyurus to soybean. Equivalent nematode numbers generally resulted in greater yield suppression of soybean in early plantings. Early planting of soybean also resulted in greater (P = 0.01) population densities of P. brachyurus at midseason which often persisted until soybean harvest. Length of time for reproduction and intraspecific competition occurring when soybeans were stunted by the nematode were the most important factors influencing the population dynamics of P. brachyurus.

Planting date of soybean, Glycine max, influenced winter survival of Pratylenchus brachyurus in microplots at two locations in North Carolina. Delayed planting resulted in a linear decrease (P = 0.05) in the numbers of P. brachyurus at soybean harvest. Effects of planting date on nematode numbers persisted over winter, indicating that survival in the absence of a host is density independent. Compared with winter fallow, winter wheat, Triticum aestivum, reduced winter survival of P. brachyurus. Subsequent soybean yields were suppressed by the overwintering population of this nematode at one location but not at another.

A series of greenhouse, phytotron, field, and microplot experiments evaluated factors that influenced plant-growth.stimulation associated with the use of the pesticide aldicarb. A phytotron experiment showed.that aldicarb increased growth, of Ransom soybean at all temperatures but was somewhat phytotoxic to Coker 156 soybean at 30 C. Soybean gave the greatest response to this nematicide at 22 C in a commercially available medium, Metromix 220. Soybean cultivars Ransom and Coker 156. exhibited increased growth in response to aldicarb or, to a lesser extent aldicarb sulfone treatments under greenhouse and microplot conditions. Enhanced soybean growth, however, did not always result in significantly greater soybean seed yield. Soil type affected soybean sensitivity to aldicarb, with. the greatest growth and yield increases generally occurring in fine-textured soils or those with high.organic matter. Plant-growth stimulation by aldicarb occurs in the absence of pests but is dependent upon concentration and edaphic and other environmental factors.

A field study was conducted to evaluate soybean cultivar sensitivity to Pratylenchus brachyurus and selected nonfumigant nematicides for control of this nematode. 'Essex', a tolerant cultivar, yielded more than 'Forrest' , a sensitive cultivar, in an infested field. Plots treated with aldicarb, carbofuran, and fenamiphos had fewer nematodes 40 days after planting than nontreated plots. Plots planted with Forrest and treated with carbofuran had a greater yield than the untreated controls.

The first phase of this study involved repeated samplings of five fields using composite samples of 10, 20, 40, and 80 soil cores, to determine the precision of nematode assays. The second phase focused on randomly selecting two and four 2-ha subunits (data on Meloidogyne spp.) of 24 fields ranging from 6 to 40 ha and computing the precision of estimated means for these numbers ofsubunits versus the general field mean (based on all 2-ha subunits). Average numbers of nematodes from most samples containing Meloidogyne spp., Heterodera glycines, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Scutellonema brachyurum, and (or) Hoplolaimus galeatus were within 50% of the overall means. Coefficient of variation (CV) values were generally lower for 40 cores than for 10, 20, and 80 cores per sample. When data for all nematodes and fields were combined, this value was lowest for 40 and 80 cores. The CV values were higher for Meloidogyne spp. than for H. glycines. Means of two samplings increased the probability of obtaining numbers nearer the mean for that field than numbers from a single composite sample. For the second phase, population estimates of Meloidogyne spp. based on four 2-ha subunits generally were closer to field means than were those for two subunits. Sampling precision with these subunits diminished greatly in large fields with variable soils and (or) mixed cropping histories. Either two or four subunits gave population estimates within 3-20% of the field mean in most instances. The mean man hours required for sampling ca. 2-ha parcels of 4-20-ha fields was 0.54 hours.

The soybean cultivars 'Braxton' and 'Kirby' were less susceptible to both races 1 and 2 of Meloidogyne arenaria than 'Centennial' and 'Young', which were highly susceptible. Soybean seed yields of resistant cultivars were greater (P = 0.05) than susceptible cultivars. Reproduction of M. arenaria races 1 and 2 was significantly lower on less susceptible cultivars compared to highly susceptible cultivars. Root galling, caused by M. arenaria, was 5-10 times greater on Centennial and Young than on less susceptible cultivars Kirby and Braxton. Resistance was independent of the host race of M. arenaria used in this study. Populations of M. arenaria that are highly pathogenic to soybean should be used in screening for soybean resistance rather than specific host races.

The reproductive potential and damage functions for Meloidogyne hapla and M. arenaria race 1 on Virginia-type peanuts (Arachis hypogaea cv. Florigiant) were determined over 2 years in microplot experiments in North Carolina. Peanut yield suppression and damage to pods as a result of galling were greatest in response to M. arenaria (P = 0.01). Damage functions for the two species were adequately described by the quadratic models: yield (g/plot) = 398 - 17.1 (log₁₀[Pi + 1]) - 17.0(log₁₀[Pi + 1])²; (R² = 0.83, P = 0.0001) for M. arenaria; and yield = 388 - 10.2(log₁₀[Pi + 1]) - 7.5(log₁₀[Pi + 1])², (R² = 0.30, P = 0.0001) for M. hapla. Both species caused galling on pods, but this was more severe in response to M. arenaria. Reproduction of M. arenaria race 1 was greater than M. hapla on peanut, which accounts in part for the more severe pod galling. Peanut was an excellent host for both M. arenaria race 1 and for M. hapla, but reproduction by M. hapla was more variable.

Aldicarb, ethoprop, and fenamiphos were evaluated for their efficacy in controlling various species of root-knot nematodes on flue-cured tobacco and for their residual activity, as determined through periodic sampling and bioassays of soil taken from field plots. Field experiments were conducted at five locations over 2 years with flue-cured tobacco. Soil in plots treated with nematicides were formed into high, wide beds before transplanting with 'Coker 371-Gold' or 'K 326' tobacco. Residual control of Meloidogyne spp. was greatest (P ≤ 0.05) with fenamiphos (in some cases up to 10 weeks, as measured in tomato bioassays of infested soil and root fragments). Suppression of nematode reproduction by ethoprop was short-lived, and numbers of second-stage juveniles + eggs and numbers of galls in bioassays sometimes surpassed those of untreated plots within 4 weeks after treatment. Aldicarb gave intermediate control over time as compared to the other compounds. Although nematicidal efficacy of all compounds varied with site and season, fenamiphos and aldicarb generally produced the highest yields.

The effects of soil types and soil water matric pressure on the Heterodera glycines-Glycine max interaction were examined in microplots in 1988 and 1989. Reproduction of H. glycines was restricted in fine-textured soils as compared with coarse-textured ones. Final population densities of this pathogen in both years of the study were greater in nonirrigated soils than in irrigated soils. The net photosynthetic rate of soybean (per unit area of leaf) was suppressed only slightly or not at all in response to infection by H. glycines and other stresses. Relative soybean-yield suppression in response to H. glycines was not affected by water content in fine-textured soils, but slopes of the damage functions were steepest in sand, sandy loam, and muck soils at high water content (irrigated plots). Yield restriction of soybean in response to this pathogen under irrigation was equal to or greater than the yield suppression under dry conditions. Although yield potential may be elevated by irrigation when soil-water content is inadequate, supplemental irrigation cannot be used to circumvent nematode damage to soybean.

Field experiments were conducted to determine peanut growth and yield responses to selected fumigant and nonfumigant nemaficide treatments in 1988 and 1989. All treatments with the fumigant 1, 3-D significantly suppressed nematode reproduction (Meloidogyne arenaria, M. hapla, and Mesocriconema ornatum) and enhanced peanut yields over the other treatments in four tests in 1988. Yield increases with the fumigant ranged from about 20% to 100% over the untreated control. Test sites in 1989 had lower nematode levels than those for 1988, and fewer positive plant and nematode responses were detected. Treatments with 1,3-D improved peanut quality but not yield in one experiment with low levels of M. hapla and M. ornatum in 1988. The 1,3-D + chloropicrin treatments at another site gave higher peanut yields than 1,3-D alone.

Previous reports of crop losses to plant-parasitic nematodes have relied on published results of survey data based on certain commodities, including tobacco, peanuts, cotton, and soybean. Reports on crop-loss assessment by land-grant universities and many commodity groups generally are no longer available, with the exception of the University of Georgia, the Beltwide Cotton Conference, and selected groups concerned with soybean. The Society of Nematologists Extension Committee contacted extension personnel in 49 U.S. states for information on estimated crop losses caused by plant-parasitic nematodes in major crops for the year 1994. Included in this paper are survey results from 35 states on various crops including corn, cotton, soybean, peanut, wheat, rice, sugarcane, sorghum, tobacco, numerous vegetable crops, fruit and nut crops, and golf greens. The data are reported systematically by state and include the estimated loss, hectarage of production, source of information, nematode species or taxon when available, and crop value. The major genera of phytoparasitic nematodes reported to cause crop losses were Heterodera, Hoplolaimus, Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus, Rotylenchulus, and Xiphinema.

One-year crop rotations with corn or highly resistant soybean were evaluated at four locations for their effect on Rotylenchulus reniformis population levels and yield of a subsequent cotton crop. Four nematicide (aldicarb) regimes were included at two of the locations, and rotation with reniform-susceptible soybean was included at the other two locations. One-year rotations to corn or resistant soybean resulted in lower R. reniformis population levels (P ≤ 0.05) than those found in cotton at three test sites. However, the effect of rotation on nematode populations was undetectable by mid-season when cotton was grown the following year. Cotton yield following a one-year rotation to resistant soybean increased at all test locations compared to continuous cotton, and yield following corn increased at three locations. The optimum application rate for aldicarb in this study was 0.84 kg a.i./ha in furrow. Side-dress applications of aldicarb resulted in yield increases that were insufficient to cover the cost of application in 3 of the 4 years.

The effects of the application of poultry litter at 0.0, 6.7, 13.4, and 20.1 tons/ha on population changes during the growing season on nematode communities were evaluated in two cotton production fields in North Carolina. Numbers of bactivorous nematodes increased at midseason in response to the rate at which litter was applied but decreased with increasing litter application rates at cotton harvest. Numbers of fungivores at cotton harvest were related positively to the rate of litter applied, and this affected a positive increase in the fungivore-to-bacterivore ratio at this sampling date. The rate at which poultry litter was applied resulted in an increase in the bacterivore to plant-parasite ratio, and this corresponded with increased cotton lint yield. Trophic diversity was increased by litter application rate at cotton harvest at one location but not at another. The plant-parasite maturity index was greater consistently at one site than at a second site where the Hoplolaimus columbus population density was above the damage threshold for cotton. The population density of H. columbus was suppressed with increasing rates of poultry litter application, but other plant-parasitic nematodes were affected marginally.

Glyphosate-tolerant cotton cultivars were evaluated for tolerance to Belonolaimus longicaudatus in field experiments conducted from 2004 to 2005. Field trials were arranged in a split-plot design that included treatment with four levels of 1, 3-dichloropropene (0.0, 13.9, 27.8, and 41.7 1 a.i./ha) to establish a range of population densities of B. longicaudatus. Six cotton cultivars (early-to-mid maturity: DP444BG/RR SG501BR, ST5242BR; mid-to late maturity: DP451B/RR, ST5599BR, DP655BRR) were planted as whole plots. Fumigation was effective in suppressing B. longicaudatus population densities at mid-season, but not at cotton harvest, and increased cotton lint yield. The cultivar × fumigation interaction for cotton lint yield was not significant for the six cultivars evaluated, indicating that tolerance did not occur in this nematode-host combination. Early-to-mid maturity cultivars yielded significantly more than mid-to-late maturity cultivars in both years. Small but significant differences in nematode final population density were observed between cultivars that may be related to relative maturity.

Obligate root-parasitic nematodes can affect soil microbes positively by enhancing C and nutrient leakage from roots but negatively by restricting total root growth. However, it is unclear how the resulting changes in C availability affect soil microbial activities and N cycling. In a microplot experiment, effects of root-parasitic reniform nematodes ( Rotylenchulus reniformis) on soil microbial biomass and activities were examined in six different soils planted with cotton. Rotylenchulus reniformis was introduced at 900 nematodes kg(-1) soil in May 2000 prior to seeding cotton. In 2001, soil samples were collected in May before cotton was seeded and in November at the final harvest. Extractable C and N were consistently higher in the R. reniformis treatments than in the non-nematode controls across the six different soils. Nematode inoculation significantly reduced microbial biomass C, but increased microbial biomass N, leading to marked decreases in microbial biomass C:N ratios. Soil microbial respiration and net N mineralization rates were also consistently higher in the nematode treatments than in the controls. However, soil types did not have a significant impact on the effects of nematodes on these microbial parameters. These findings indicate that nematode infection of plant roots may enhance microbial activities and the turnover of soil microbial biomass, facilitating soil N cycling. The present study provides the first evidence about the direct role of root-feeding nematodes in enhancing soil N mineralization.

Red root rot, caused by Phoma terrestris E. M. Hansen, caused premature senescence and yield reductions to fresh-market sweet corn in Hyde County, North Carolina in July 2006. Foliar symptoms developed over a period of 5 to 8 days approximately 1 to 2 weeks after anthesis and included desiccation of leaves and poor development of ears. By 3 weeks after pollination, when the sweet corn was harvested, crowns and the first aboveground internode of affected plants were rotted and reddish colored, but roots appeared normal. The root mass of affected plants tended to be greater than that of unaffected plants. Incidence of symptomatic plants was greater than 30% in some fields and was lower on crops planted and harvested early. Symptomatic and asymptomatic plants were adjacent in affected fields. Diseased plants were more common in fields of sweet corn that followed soybean (Glycine max) or a double-crop of onions (Allium cepa) than in fields that followed corn. Incidence of symptomatic plants also differed among adjacent plantings of different sweet corn hybrids. Hybrids ‘173A’, ‘182A’, ‘378a’, and ‘XTH1178’ had a high incidence of symptomatic plants and ‘372A’, ‘278A’, ‘8101’, and ‘8102’ were less affected. Samples of symptomatic plants of the hybrid ‘182A’ were examined at the North Carolina Plant Disease and Insect Clinic during August. Olivaceous black pycnidia with long setae around the ostioles were imbedded in the stalk near the first node aboveground. Numerous conidia (1.8 to 2.3 × 4.5 to 5.5 μm) were released in cirri from pycnidia. When cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA), the fungus produced a red pigment and intercalary and terminal chlamydospores. Pathogenicity was demonstrated in the greenhouse by transplanting corn seedlings or direct-seeding corn into pots of soil infested with plates of PDA containing chlamydospores and hyphae. A suspension of chlamydospores and hyphae also was injected into the stems of plants 28 days after transplanting. Five replicates of the pathogenicity experiments were repeated twice with noninoculated controls. After 8 weeks, P. terrestris was recovered from the roots of all inoculated plants. Soil inoculation resulted in necrotic root tissue in approximately 25% of inoculated plants. Approximately 90% of inoculated plants had discolored crowns that resembled symptoms from field infected plants. Stem inoculations resulted in necrosis extending 2 to 5 cm from the point of injection and resulted in shoot death of 40% of inoculated plants that resulted in the development of an adventitious shoot. Red root rot was prevalent on field corn in the Delmarva Peninsula throughout the late 1980s and 1990s (1). To our knowledge, this is the first report of this disease causing damage to sweet corn in North Carolina. Foliar symptoms and discoloration of crowns of diseased sweet corn plants were similar to previously described symptoms of red root rot on field corn (2), however, roots of affected sweet corn plants were not substantially rotted and did not have a symptomatic reddish pink or dark carmine color, presumably because sweet corn is harvested prior to the development of root symptoms. References: (1) K. W. Campbell et al. Plant Dis. 75:1186, 1991. (2) D. G. White, ed. Compendium of Corn Diseases. The American Phytopathological Society, St Paul, MN, 1999.

Target spot of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) caused by Corynespora cassiicola (Berk. & Curt.), although found in most soybean-growing countries, is considered to be a disease of limited importance (1) and has never been reported to cause soybean yield loss in the southeastern United States (2,3). Soybean plants submitted to the North Carolina Plant Disease and Insect Clinic (NCPDIC) in August 2004 from Beaufort, Robeson, Wilson, and Johnston counties, NC had symptoms consistent with target spot. Symptoms consisted of roughly circular, necrotic leaf lesions from minute to 11 mm in diameter, though typically approximately 4 to 5 mm in diameter, and with a yellow margin. Large lesions occasionally exhibited a zonate pattern often associated with this disease. Microscopic examination of the lesions revealed the presence of spores (conidia) typical of C. cassiicola (1). Conidia were mostly three to five septate with a central hilum at the base and ranged in size from 7 to 22 wide × 39 to 520 μm long. Three commercial soybean fields near Blackville, SC (Barnwell County) were severely affected by this disease and it caused premature defoliation. Nineteen of twenty-seven maturity group VII and VIII genotypes in the 2004 Clemson University soybean variety trial near Blackville, SC had visible symptoms of target spot. Heavy rainfall associated with hurricanes during September 2004 probably enhanced the incidence of this disease, and yield suppression due to target spot was estimated at 20 to 40% in some fields. In 2005, 20 of 161 soybean samples submitted to the NCPDIC or collected in surveys from 16 counties were positive for target spot on the basis of microscopic examination. Target spot also was diagnosed in six counties (Baldwin, DeKalb, Elmore, Fayette, Macon, and Pickens) in Alabama and in four additional counties (Bamberg, Hampton, Orange-burg, and Calhoun) in South Carolina in 2005. Records from the NCPDIC indicate that target spot had not been diagnosed on soybean in North Carolina since 1981. The large increase in incidence of target spot in the southeast may be related to changes in weather patterns, changes in pathogen virulence, and/or the introduction of more susceptible host genotypes. References: (1) J. B. Sinclair. Target spot. Page 27 in: Compendium of Soybean Diseases. G. L. Hartman et al. eds. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 1999. (2) J. A. Wrather et al. Plant Dis. 79:1076. 1995. (3) J. A. Wrather et al. On-line publication. doi:10.1094/PHP-2003-0325-01-RV. Plant Health Progress, 2003.

Use of soybean cyst nematode (SCN), (Heterodera glycines Ichinohe), resistant cultivars of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is common practice to control losses due to this pest. The experiment was conducted to compare blends of resistant and susceptible cultivarswith their yield response when grown in pure monoculture stands. Two SCN-resistant cultivars Bedford and Bradley, three susceptible cultivars or breeding lines, Essex, York, and N79-491, and blends of resistant and susceptible cultivars (50:50 ratio) were tested against soybean monoculture in a SCN Race 14-infested field. The mean yield (over 5 yr) of Bedford, Bradley, Essex, York, and N79-491 grown in monoculture was 1707, 1703, 903,1063, and 1379 kg ha−1, respectively. Yield of blends were generally similar to their resistant cultivar components in monoculture but they were always greater (P = 0.05) than the susceptible cultivar components. The Bedford and Essex blend resulted in the greatest yield, which was 672 kg ha−1 (51%) greater than the mean of component crop yields in pure stand. The race designation of the SCN population changed from Race 14 to Race 5 when resistant Bedford and Bradley were grown, from Race 14 to 9 when susceptible cultivars were grown, and from Race 14 to 2 in plots containing blends of resistant and susceptible cultivars or lines. Resistant cultivars grown with susceptible cultivars or lines in blends had lower numbers of cysts on the roots 30 d after planting than resistant cultivars grown in pure stands. Blends of resistant and susceptible cultivars can maintain soybean yields at acceptable levels by minimizing the selection pressure on the nematode population for their ability to parasitize resistant cultivars.

The long-term effects of no-till planting practices and rotation on the population dynamics of the soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) and soybean yield were investigated in field experiments over a period of 8 yr. The experiment was a 2 X 4 factorial, comparing no-till vs. conventional tillage practices in four cropping patterns (continuous soybean, a 1-yr rotation of corn and soybean, a rotation of 2 yr of corn followed by soybean, and a corn-wheat/soybean double-cropping system). Treatments were arranged so that each combination occurred every year after 1986. Soybean after 1 yr of corn had higher yields (P = 0.0001) than soybean after soybean. Two years of corn between soybean crops resulted in soybean yields higher than those after 1 yr of corn in only 2 out of 6 yr. The yields of soybean in the corn, wheat/soybean double-cropping system, however, were generally similar to monoculture soybean. No-till practices had positive or no effects on soybean yield early in the study, but yields of no-till soybean were lower (P = 0.01) than conventionally tilled soybean after several years because weed pressure was greater in no-till plots. Population densities of H. glycines were greater (P < 0.10) in conventionally tilled plots than in no-till plots in 1988 and 1990-1992. Numbers of H. glycines fluctuated in an unpredictable manner from year to year, possibly because of unidentified biological control agents or excessive moisture in certain years. H. glycines population densities declined in a predictable manner when a nonhost was planted

We evaluated the effects of soybean planting date and maturity group (MG) on final population density of Heterodera glycines and yield in cultivars susceptible to H, glycines grown in monoculture and in rotations with 1 or 2 yr of nonhosts. Population density of eggs and eggs plus second-stage juveniles of H. glycines declined to barely detectable levels after 2 yr of nonhost culture. Population densities of this nematode were consistently greater (P=0.05) for an MG VII cultivar than an MG V cultivar. Planting date had variable effects on final population density of H. glycines: early planting resulted in the highest nematode numbers in some years, whereas late planting was associated with significantly greater (P=0.05) population densities in other years

The influence of simulated acidic rain on interactions of root-knot (Meloidogyne hapla, M. incognita) or cyst (Heterodera glycines) nematodes with soybean plants (Glycine max) was investigated in greenhouse experiments. Seedlings inoculated with rhizobia were transplanted into pots of nematode egg-infested soil (one nematode species per pot) or noninfested soil. Three days later, plants and soil were exposed to simulated rain (2 cm in 1 h) adjusted to pH 5.3, 4.3, 3.3, or 2.3 (...)

The influence of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) cover crop vs. winter fallow and of soybean (Glycine max) planting date on the populations dynamics of soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) (SCN) was determined during a 2-yr period. Numbers of SCN cysts, eggs, and second-stage juveniles were unaffected by wheat as opposed to winter fallow. Delay in soybean planting associated with double-cropping wheat, however, allowed for a significant decline in the numbers of SCN between early May and late June. Midseason densities of early May soybean plantings were greater than those of mid-June to late June plantings (.)

Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of soil-incorporated poultry litter on the population dynamics of Hoplolaimus columbus and cotton lint yield. Rates of poultry litter applied varied from 0.0 to 27.0 t/ha and were applied in December, February, or March. Time of application did not influence population densities of this nematode or cotton yield. The rate of poultry litter applied was negatively related to the population density of H. columbus at midseason, but not at other sampling dates. The lower midseason levels of this nematode corresponded with increases in cotton lint yield in all experiments. Cotton yield increases generally were linear with respect to the rate of litter applied, although the highest rates of litter applied did not always result in the greatest cotton yield. Poultry litter can be used effectively to supply nutrients to the crop and suppress damaging levels of H. columbus. Optimal rates of litter application were from 6.0 to 13.4 t/ha. Application of poultry litter at these rates, however, may exceed nutrient levels required for best management practices.