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During the pre-launch phase of NASA’s THEMIS mission, the Education and Public Outreach (E/PO) program successfully brought the excitement of THEMIS to the public, students and teachers through a variety of programs. The Geomagnetic Event Ob- servation Network by Students (GEONS) was the main effort during this time, a project in which 13 magnetometers were placed in or near 13 rural schools across the country. High school teachers and a few middle school teachers at these and/or neighboring schools took part in a long-term professional development program based around space science and the magnetometer data. The teachers created week-long to semester-long projects during which their students worked on THEMIS lessons that they, their colleagues, and the E/PO team created. In addition to this program, THEMIS E/PO also launched the only Lawrence Hall of Science (LHS) Great Explorations in Mathematics and Science (GEMS) site in Nevada. This site provides a sustainable place for teacher professional development using hands-on GEMS activities, and has been used by teachers around the state of Nevada. Short-term professional development for K-12 teachers (one-hour to two-day workshops), with a focus on the Tribal College and Society for the Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in Science (SACNAS) communities have reached hundreds of teachers across the country. A Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) ViewSpace show on auroras and THEMIS was created and distributed, and shown in over a hundred science centers and museums nation- wide. The THEMIS E/PO program developed and maintained a THEMIS E/PO Website for dissemination of (1) information and multimedia about the science and engineering of THEMIS, (2) updated news about the mission in language appropriate for the public, (3) the GEONS data, the GEONS teacher guides with classroom activities, and (4) information about the THEMIS E/PO program. Hundreds of thousands of visitors have viewed this web- site. In this paper, we describe these programs along with the evaluation results, and discuss what lessons we learned along the way.

We have assembled a database of operational satellites in orbit as of 2004, and have developed a series of simple models to assess the economic impacts to this resource caused by various scenarios of superstorm events possible during the next sunspot cycle between 2010 and 2014. Despite the apparent robustness of our satellite assets against the kinds of storms we have encountered during the satellite era, our models suggest a potential economic loss exceeding $10(exp 11) for satellite replacement and lost profitability caused by a once a century single storm similar to the 1859 superstorm. From a combination of power system and attitude control system (the most vulnerable) failures, we estimate that 80 satellites (LEO, MEO, GEO) may be disabled as a consequence of a superstorm event. Additional consequences may include the failure of many of the GPS, GLONASS and Galileo satellite systems in MEO. Approximately 98 LEO satellites that normally would not have re-entered for many decades, may prematurely de-orbit in ca 2021 as a result of the temporarily increased atmospheric drag caused by the superstorm event occurring in 2012. The $10(exp 11) International Space Station may lose at least 15 kilometers of altitude, placing it in critical need for re-boosting by an amount that is potentially outside the range of typical Space Shuttle operations during the previous solar maximum in ca 2000, and at a time when NASA plans to decommission the Space Shuttle. Several LEO satellites will unexpectedly be placed on orbits that enter the ISS zone of avoidance, requiring some action by ground personnel and ISS astronauts to avoid close encounters. Radiation effects on astronauts have also been considered and could include a range of possibilities from acute radiation sickness for astronauts inside spacecraft, to near-lethal doses during EVAs. The specifics depends very sensitively on the spectral hardness of the accompanying SPE event. Currently, the ability to forecast extreme particle events and coronal mass ejections, or predict their fluences and geo-severity in the 24-hrs prior to the event, appears to be no better than 50/50. If the events of the 1859 superstorm serve as a guide, the scope of a contemporary superstorm will most certainly be an awesome event, but one that the vast majority of our other satellite resources may reasonably be expected to survive.

The great geomagnetic storm of 1859 is really composed of two closely spaced massive worldwide auroral events. The first event began on August 28th and the second began on September 2nd. It is the storm on September 2nd that results from the Carrington-Hodgson white light flare that occurred on the sun September l&. In addition to published scientific measurements; newspapers, ship logs and other records of that era provide an untapped wealth of first hand observations giving time and location along with reports of the auroral forms and colors. At its height, the aurora was described as a blood or deep crimson red that was so bright that one "could read a newspaper by." Several important aspects of this great geomagnetic storm are simply phenomenal. Auroral forms of all types and colors were observed to latitudes of 25deg and lower. A significant portion of the world's 125,000 miles of telegraph lines were also adversely affected. Many of - which were unusable for 8 hours or more and had a small but notable economic impact. T h s paper presents only a select few available first hand accounts of the Great Auroral Event of 1859 in an attempt to give the modern reader a sense of how this spectacular display was received by the public from many places around the globe and present some other important historical aspects of the storm.

This paper shows preliminary results of a research aimed to improve passive safety of gymnastic equipments. To assess the impact attenuation performances of protective devices, mainly realized with polymer-based foams, impact testing standards are applied. Due to lack of criticism about test procedures and analysis of experimental results, the choice of the most safe device is not trivial. The first part of the paper shows the main impact testing procedures provided by international standards and defined for gymnastic equipments and playground area. In accordance to these standards the main impact attenuation performances for passive safety assessment are defined. The second part of the paper shows first experimental results obtained using new testing apparatus developed at the Sports Equipment and Technology Lab of Chemnitz University of Technology. Impact attenuation performances of two protective devices realised with polymer-based foams are analysed. The parameter of theoretical drop height is introduced to compare experimental results collected in our laboratory with others previously collected in an accredited laboratory. The comparison of test standards reveals a lack of specification in EN 913. Finally, new experimental sessions are planned to optimize material and architecture of polymer based foams used as protective device in order to easily assess passive safety improvement for gymnastic equipment.

This is one of two papers in which we report the detection of structure in the cosmic infrared background (CIB) between 1.25 - 2.2 micron through the use of data from the Two Micron Sky Survey (2MASS). This paper concentrates on data assembly, analysis and the estimate of the various foreground contributions; the companion paper (Kashlinsky, Odenwald, Mather, Skrutskie, Cutri 2002, hereafter KOMSC) presents the cosmological results for the CIB fluctuations and their implications. By using repeated observations of a specific calibration star field, we were able to achieve integration times in excess of 3900 seconds compared to the 7.8 seconds in the standard 2MASS data product. This yielded a point source detection limit (3 \sigma) of +18.5^m in K_s band. The resulting co-added images were processed to remove point sources to a limiting surface brightness of +20^m/arcsec$^2 or 40 nW/m^2/sr. The remaining maps contained over 90% of the pixels and were Fourier transformed to study the spatial structure of the diffuse background light. After removing resolved sources and other artifacts, we find that the power spectrum of the final images has a power-law distribution consistent with clustering by distant galaxies. We estimate here the contributions to this signal from Galactic foregrounds, atmospheric OH-glow, zodiacal light and instrument noise, all of which are small and of different slopes. Hence, this supports the KOMSC identification of the signal as coming from the CIB fluctuations produced by distant clustered galaxies.

We report first results for the cosmic infrared background (CIB) fluctuations at 1.25, 1.65 and 2.17 micron obtained from long exposures constructed from 2MASS standard star fields. We have co-added and analyzed scans from one such field with a total exposure time > 1 hour, and removed sources and other artifacts. The stars and galaxies were clipped out to K_s~19^m leaving only high-z galaxies (or possibly local low-surface-brightness systems). The residual component of the diffuse emission on scales from a few arc-sec to a few arc-min has a power-law slope consistent with emission produced by clustered galaxies. The noise (and residual artifacts) contribution to the signal is small and the colors of the signal are very different from Galactic stars or air-glow. We therefore identify the signal as CIB fluctuations from the faint unresolved galaxies. We show that the present-day galaxies with no evolution would produce a significant deficit in the observed CIB fluctuations. Thus the dominant contribution to the observed signal must come from high z and may indicate high rates of star formation at those epochs., Ap. J. Letters, in press

We measure the smoothness of the infrared sky using the COBE DIRBE maps, and obtain interesting limits on the production of the diffuse cosmic infrared background (CIB) light by matter clustered like galaxies. The predicted fluctuations of the CIB with the DIRBE beam size of 07 are of the order of 10%, and the maps are smooth at the level of δνIν ~ a few nW m-2 sr-1 rms from 2.2 to 100 μm. The lowest numbers are achieved at mid- to far-IR, where the foreground is bright but smooth; they are [C(0)]1/2 ≤ (1-1.5) nW m-2 sr-1 at λ = 10-100 μm. If the CIB comes from clustered matter evolving according to typical scenarios, then the smoothness of the maps implies CIB levels less than ~(10-15) nW m-2 sr-1 over this wavelength range.

The purpose of this prospective clinical trial was to report about results of primary or early secondary arthroscopic stabilization after first traumatic anterior dislocation of the shoulder.Within 2 weeks or in the 7th to 12th week post trauma, 51 subjects between 16 and 30 years received arthroscopic stabilization and rehabilitation. The patients were followed-up 6 months and 2 years post operation and assessed with the Rowe and the Constant scores.At a mean follow-up of 27.9+/-4.3 months all patients returned to work in their profession. Of the patients, 79.2% were satisfied with the result of the operation; 91.7% returned to their sports. During the follow-up period five patients (10.4%) suffered redislocation. There was no difference in the result comparing the time of operation. The Rowe and Constant scores showed excellent results.Arthroscopic stabilization after first traumatic anterior shoulder dislocation of the young patient is an appropriate approach and regardless of whether it is performed as a primary or early secondary operation it significantly lowers the redislocation rate. The method leads to quick reintegration into professional life and sports activities.

[1] We calculate the economic impact on the existing geosynchronous Earth-orbiting satellite population of an 1859-caliber superstorm event were it to occur between 2008 and 2018 during the next solar activity cycle. From a detailed model for transponder capacity and leasing, we have investigated the total revenue loss over the entire solar cycle, as a function of superstorm onset year and intensity. Our Monte Carlo simulations of 1000 possible superstorms, of varying intensity and onset year, suggest that the minimum revenue loss could be of the order of $30 billion. The losses would be larger than this if more that 20 satellites are disabled, if future launch rates do not keep up with the expected rate of retirements, or if the number of spare transponders falls below ∼30%. Consequently, revenue losses can be significantly reduced below $30 billion if the current satellite population undergoes net growth beyond 300 units during Solar Cycle 24 and a larger margin of unused transponders is maintained.

David R. DeWalle, James N. Kochenderfer, Mary Beth Adams, Gary W. Miller, Frank S. Gilliam, Frederica Wood, Stephanie S. OdenwaldClemens, and William E. Sharpe The Pennsylvania State University, School of Forest Resources and Institutes of the Environment, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802; USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Timber and Watershed Lab, Parsons, West Virginia 26287; USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505; Marshall University, Department of Biological Sciences, Huntington, West Virginia 25755.

The cosmic infrared background (CIB) radiation is the cosmic repository for energy release throughout the history of the universe. Using the all-sky data from the COBE DIRBE instrument at wavelengths 1.25 - 100 mic we attempt to measure the CIB fluctuations. In the near-IR, foreground emission is dominated by small scale structure due to stars in the Galaxy. There we find a strong correlation between the amplitude of the fluctuations and Galactic latitude after removing bright foreground stars. Using data outside the Galactic plane ($|b| > 20\deg$) and away from the center ($90\deg< l, Comment: Ap.J., in press. 69 pages including 24 figs

This paper is devoted to studying the CIB through its correlation properties. We studied the limits on CIB anisotropy in the near IR (1.25, 2.2, and 3.5 \um, or $J,\;K,\;L$) bands at a scale of 0.7\deg\ using the COBE\footnote{ The National Aeronautics and Space Administration/Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC) is responsible for the design, development, and operation of the {\it COBE}. Scientific guidance is provided by the {\it COBE} Science Working Group. GSFC is also responsible for the development of the analysis software and for the production of the mission data sets.} Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE) data. In single bands we obtain the upper limits on the zero-lag correlation signal $C(0)= \langle(\nu \delta I_\nu)^2\rangle < 3.6 \times 10^{-16},\; 5.1 \times 10^{-17},\; 5.7 \times 10^{-18}$ \w2m4sr2 for the $J,K,L$ bands respectively. The DIRBE data exhibit a clear color between the various bands with a small dispersion. On the other hand most of the CIB is expected to come from redshifted galaxies and thus should have different color properties. We use this observation to develop a `color subtraction' method of linear combinations of maps at two different bands. This method is expected to suppress the dominant fluctuations from foreground stars and nearby galaxies, while not reducing (or perhaps even amplifying) the extragalactic contribution to $C(0)$. Applying this technique gives significantly lower and more isotropic limits., Comment: 44 pages postcript; includes 5 tables, 14 figures. Astrophysical Journal, in press

We outline a new method for estimating the cosmic infrared background using the spatial and spectral correlation properties of infrared maps. The cosmic infrared background from galaxies should have a minimum fluctuation of the order of 10\% on angular scales of the order of 1\deg. We show that a linear combination of maps at different wavelengths can greatly reduce the fluctuations produced by foreground stars, while not eliminating the fluctuations of the background from high redshift galaxies. The method is potentially very powerful, especially at wavelengths where the foreground is bright but smooth., Comment: 7 pages postcript, talk at "Unveiling the cosmic infrared background" workshop, College Park, MD

The Cygnus‐X region has long been recognized as one of the more complex regions of the Galactic plane. It has been interpreted as both a single supergiant HII region, and as a chance piling up of unrelated SFRs along the line‐of‐sight. I will present a recent IRAS study of Cygnus‐X which suggests that the former interpretation may be the most consistent with the number and distribution of SFRs within Cygnus‐X.

In his Perspective “An infrared look behind stars” ( Science 's Compass, 14 Apr., p. [281][1]), Craig J. Hogan discusses recent developments ([1][2], [2][3]) in measuring the total cosmic emission at near infrared wavelengths, based on data from the Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE

The distribution of young stellar objects toward the Cygnus X region obtained from the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) is combined with a recent 12 CO (J=2-1) survey. The most luminous young stellar objects (YSOs) are examined for membership in the Local arm and the Perseus arm. The far-infrared, radio, and molecular emission is also analyzed from a global perspective. Seventy YSOs have been identified, corresponding to stars earlier than ≃B7 ZAMS, primarily associated with molecular clouds in the Local arm. The 12 CO (J=2-1) emission associated with these YSOs reveals 23 instances of broad-line wings including 10 with spatially complex, extended high-velocity molecular emission

An infrared camera for astronomical research has been developed at the Naval Research Laboratory, Center for Advanced Space Sensing. A series of observations in December 1990 at the 2.3-meter Wyoming Infrared Observatory (WIRO) yielded new astronomical images of the star forming regions M42/IRc 1, NGC 2264/IRS1 and NGC 7538/IRS1 at 12 and 20 microns, in addition to images of a variety of stellar calibrators. Based on a 10x50 element, Si:As BIBIB/SWIFET hybrid array fabricated at Rockwell International, this camera system (IRCAM) achieves its peak sensitivity between 18-22 microns, making it well matched for observing in the 20 micron atmospheric window. Substantial sensitivity is also available at 10 microns so that near simultaneous observations are feasible through both windows. IRCAM employs four, (Delta lambda -> 1.0 microns) filters at 8, 10, 12 and 12.4 microns; a broad band filter: 18-24 microns, as well as standard K, L, and M filters. The array field of view is 20" x 100" with 1.6" pixels surrounded by 0.4" dead space, allowing diffraction limited observing at 20 microns with a 2.3-meter telescope. In this paper, we describe the camera system, and present the results of the astronomical observations conducted at the Wyoming Infrared Observatory.

New observations of DR 15 and 20 are reported as part of a study of compact H II regions in the Cyg X region. The radio and FIR data for these objects, when combined with (C-12)O maps, IRAS imagery, and optical photographs, provide new insights into the structure of this complex region and the nature of the star-formation process there. The observations show that DR 15 may consist of one or two B0 ZAMS stars whose H I regions have formed a low-density cavity within a molecular cloud. DR 20 appears to be a young OB cluster. The cluster is dominated by an O5.5 ZAMS star and also contains an approximately 3500-yr-old B0 star appearing as a compact H II region, along with weak FIR sources that may be B0-star candidates.

Observations were made of the radio noise background in the frequency range 150–180 kHz to provide reference data for the design of the ground wave emergency network system. These observations were undertaken at Nanjemoy, Maryland, during early summer 1983 and included 41 days of data recording. The noise environment was found to be dominated by impulsive thunderstorm noise. A typical nighttime mean noise power spectral density was 1×10−15 W m−2 Hz−1 (noise factor of 107 dB above kT0), while a typical daytime level was at least 14 dB quieter. However, the daytime level was at times significantly higher, especially during the presence of a local thunderstorm front. During local thunderstorm activity, impulses with peak power spectral density of 1×10−14 W m−2 Hz−1 were observed frequently, while the most energetic pulse detected during our monitoring period had a peak power spectral density of 6.8×10−14 W m−2 Hz−1 (Fa = 125 dB). Sample amplitude probability distributions and time probability distributions are presented for day/quiet, night, and thunderstorm conditions. Agreement with the mean noise level predictions of CCIR report 322 is satisfactory within the accuracy limits of the CCIR data.

We present far-IR, radio continuum, and spectral line observations of an unusual, highly elongated, comet-shaped molecular cloud, located about 100 pc from the Galactic plane. The presence of three late B-type stars embedded within, or adjacent to, this low-mass cloud implies a star-forming efficiency that may be as high as 30 percent. Several mechanisms that may have been responsible for its unusual morphology and high star-forming efficiency will be described and evaluated. Although ram-pressure resulting from the rapid motion of this cloud through the interstellar medium could explain its streamlined appearance, there is evidence that G110-13 is the compression front formed by a recent cloud collision.

The region within + or - 1.5 deg of the galactic center has been surveyed at a resolution of 1 arcmin between 40 and 250 microns. Forty-seven FIR sources were detected in the field, 38 of them spatially coincident with prominent radio-emitting regions. The 27 sources associated with H II regions have luminosities ranging from 500,000 to ten million solar luminosities, average infrared excesses of 16, and average dust-to-gas ratios of 0.002. They are located in a narrow band centered on Sgr A. Each FIR source appears to be powered by small numbers of early type O stars. The initial luminosity functions for these sources is best fitted by an exponential form with an e-folding luminosity of 2.3 million solar luminosities. The extended thermal emission of the region is consistent with a population of 30,000-50,000 ZAMS stars embedded in an ISM with a Lyman-continuum optical depth of 1-1.5.

Far-infrared maps are presented for three young H II regions in the Cygnus X region. DR 6 and 7 were mapped in the wavelength band from 40 to 250 microns at 1 arcmin resolution, while DR 22 was mapped in the same band and also at 100-250 microns, providing dust temperature and optical depth information. New VLA maps of these sources are also presented. It is concluded that DR 6 and 7 are powered by clusters of late O or early B type stars, with ages 100,000 yr or less, while DR 22 appears to be produced by a single O6 ZAMS star. Existing (C-12)O maps suggest that the formation of these objects occurred near the edges of molecular clouds.

IRAS 100 micron images of the Draco cloud show several cloud components with cometary plumes of material extending 7-10 pc. The brightest plumes are very uniform in thickness but often terminate in large amorphous regions. The structure is consistent with low Reynolds number hydrodynamics and is suggestive of a molecular cloud shedding material in a plume as it falls onto the galactic plane from the halo region. A subsequent study of the 100 micron images from the entire IRAS survey has revealed a total of 14 additional cometlike objects with /b II/ greater then 15 deg. 42 references.

Optical and far-IR studies have been conducted on 14 high Galactic latitude clouds with comet-like or filamentary appearances. Their physical characteristics are deduced and found to be comparable to those of small, low-mass molecular clouds found in the solar neighborhood in recent CO and H I surveys. The morphologies of five of the clouds are found to be consistent with objects moving supersonically through the interstellar medium. These clouds are also active in forming B-type stars in their nuclei where the dynamic pressures are expected to be highest. The filamentary clouds have shapes consistent with subsonic, low Reynolds number hydrodynamics, a feature they may share with the Draco molecular cloud. A simple qualitative scenario is also presented, describing a possible evolutionary link among these clouds as a population. 47 references.

The W28 supernova remnant molecular cloud complex has been surveyed in the 40-250 micron spectral range with a three-sigma sensitivity of 100-165 Jy per beam. Only two sources have been found. One, located near the center of the SNR, has a luminosity of 54,000 solar luminosities and can be identified with the thermal radio source G6.6-0.1. The energizing source is probably an O-type ZAMS star. The second source, which is near the boundary of the SNR at a sharp gradient of OH absorption, has a luminosity of 6000 solar luminosities and has no radio counterpart. It is best explained as a B1 ZAMS star or a pre-main sequence object presumably formed from the impact of an expanding SNR with a molecular cloud. No far-IR emission is observed at the position of the CO molecular cloud, which seems to have been impacted by the SNR.

The region of NGC 2264 near the cone nebula is the site of active star formation in a rotating ring seen nearly edge on as a two lobed source. Allen's infrared source (IRS 1) surrounds a B3V star still embedded in the southern lobe of the cloud. The northern lobe, IRS 2, also probably contains young stars.