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Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: Stroke is not only a very common cause of death, but also the most common cause of disability and long-term health problems with a significant impact on patients' quality of life. The present study aimed to assess the effects of a psychoeducational program delivered simultaneously with standard rehabilitation care to patients in the post-acute phase of stroke on their health-related quality of life (HRQoL), dignity, levels of depression, levels of self-sufficiency in activities of daily life, and also pain. Methods: The randomized study involved adult patients after their first stroke occurrence who were admitted to post-acute inpatient rehabilitation care due to persistent neurological deficits. At the same time, they were partially self-sufficient and did not present with dementia or a phatic disorder or severe visual or hearing impairment. In addition to standard care, the intervention group was provided with multi-component psychoeducation. Data collection took place at patient enrollment and 3 months later using standardized questionnaires for health-related quality of life (EQ-5D-5L), depression (Beck's Depression Inventory [BDI-II]), dignity (The Patient Dignity Inventory [PDI]), coping with activities of daily living (Barthel index [BI]) and pain (Visual Analogue Scale [VAS]). Statistical evaluation was performed using univariate and multivariate analyses. Results: Of the 221 randomized patients, 201 (91%) completed the study; 102 in the intervention group (65 men, age 60 ± 13.6 years) and 99 in the control group (58 men, age 63 ± 13.4 years). After 3 months, there was a statistically significant difference in the change in EQ-5D-5L/domains (2.77 ± 2.08 vs. 0.93 ± 1,81), EQ-VAS (13.77 ± 12.06 vs. 4.23 ± 15.51), PDI (9.50 ± 8.33 vs. 2.47 ± 8.18), BI (14.94 ± 11.02 vs. 8.96 ± 9.16) and BDI (3.15 ± 3.61 vs. 0.40 ± 4.19) in the intervention group compared to the control group (for all P < 0.0001). Post-hoc analysis showed that the independent predictors of higher HRQoL were, apart from applied psychoeducation, greater degrees of self-sufficiency, less severe depression levels and lower intensity of pain. Conclusion: Psychoeducation is a suitable supplement to post-acute rehabilitation care for post-stroke patients leading to improvements in HRQoL, greater independence in activities of daily life, reduction of depression load and increased sense of dignity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Measurement of many important psychological concepts, such as health-related quality of life, satisfaction with different types of public and private services, personality, or attitudes, is most often based on various questionnaires. Nevertheless, this method is based on the subjective testimony of an individual about his/ her features, feelings, attitudes, etc. It provides relevant responses only when respondents have well developed introspection, a reason to open up, express themselves, and provide adequate and relevant answers. Projective methods represent an alternative option to measure psychological concepts with the potential reduction of conscious or unconscious bias. The Colour Association Method (CA method) is an advanced projective technique, based on principles of the Lüscher colour test and word associations, which uses an objective computer data evaluation and thus overcomes one of the main weaknesses of projective methods. The study aims to investigate the ability of standard questionnaire and CA method to capture the responses of humans to different stimuli with emotional charge. A sample of 101 individuals will be used for this purpose, where each of them will be exposed to 145 different predefined stimuli. Comparison of physiological responses (cerebral blood flow, electrical activity of the brain, heart rate variability, and skin conductance response) to these stimuli and the perception of the stimuli measured by the questionnaire and CA method will be performed to determine which method provides a more accurate information on the real perception of the stimuli. These findings may have important consequences for the use of the questionnaire and the CA method to measure different psychological concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this work is to analyse data of brain death scintigraphy examinations performed within one centre retrospectively. We focused on the differences between examined children and adults, including proportions of coma causes or organ donors. The cases with negative scintigraphic finding were further assessed. Design: Retrospective. Setting: Nuclear Medicine Department, University Hospital. Material and methods: A total of 320 patients between years 2003 and 2020 were examined (mean age 44 ± 18 years, 207 men, 113 women). The group was divided according to age into patients under 18 years (40, Group A) and those with age higher than or equal to 18 years (280, Group B), these groups were compared for the causes leading to coma and for the rate of organ donors. Results: A finding demonstrating cerebral aperfusion was recorded at 95% of patients during the first examination. The groups differed significantly in the causes leading to coma, cerebrovascular accidents formed only 10 % of Group A, in contrast to Group B with dominating cerebrovascular accidents and trauma plus other external causes (48 %, 43 % respectively, P < 0.0001). There were also significant differences in the proportions of patients who were not organ donors, they were significantly more frequent in Group A (55 % vs. 11 %, P < 0.0001), they have different proportions of causes leading to coma, with minority of cerebrovascular accidents (13 %, P < 0.0001). Conclusion: Brain perfusion scintigraphy is an available and usable method standardized in the brain death diagnosis. There are differences in the proportions of coma causes and of subsequent organ donors to transplant in childhood and adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Aim: Early identification of patients at higher risk of unstable atherosclerotic plaque development is essential for successful preventive treatment. The aim of the study was to identify the duplex sonography carotid atherosclerotic plaque risk characteristics for plaque progression. Methods: All patients who underwent regular sonographic examinations within 36 months were included in the analysis. At each control, the following characteristics of the atherosclerotic plaque in the carotid artery were evaluated: maximum width, echogenicity, homogeneity, plaque surface and the presence of calcifications. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used for the statistical evaluation. Results: Stable atherosclerotic plaques in both carotid arteries were detected in 332 patients (125 males, mean age 66.7 ± 9.7 years). Progressive atherosclerotic plaque in at least one carotid artery was detected in 255 patients (126 males, mean age 69.5 ± 8.3 years). Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified 3 risk factors for carotid atherosclerotic plaque progression: plaque width (increasing the risk of plaque progression within 3 years by 73.5% per 1mm; P < 0.0001), irregular plaque surface (increasing the risk of progression by 56.4%; P = 0.007) and exulcerated plaque (increasing the risk of progression by 81.9%; P = 0.025). Conclusion: The width and irregular and exulcerated surface of the carotid atherosclerotic plaque are independent risk factors for plaque progression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Aim: Atherosclerotic carotid artery disease is one of the most common causes of ischemic stroke. As the study of the progression and development of instability of atherosclerotic plaques in vivo is limited, data from in vitro studies can be used to clarify these processes. For these reasons, the authors constructed a hemodynamic model with the possibility of inserting the atherosclerotic plaque removed during carotid endarterectomy for the study of hemodynamics in the carotid bifurcation. The aim of the study was to determine whether it is possible to simulate fl ow parameters in the area of carotid bifurcation stenosis in the hemodynamic model comparable to the in vivo state before performing carotid endarterectomy. Intact atherosclerotic plaque was removed from the carotid artery during endarterectomy and inserted into a hemodynamic model. Methods: The study included 13 patients with carotid stenosis ≥ 50% indicated for carotid endarterectomy. The atherosclerotic plaques were removed from the carotid artery during carotid endarterectomy and inserted into the hemodynamic model. Results: The mean differences in the measured maximum and end-diastolic velocities in the area of stenosis in vivo before carotid endarterectomy and in vitro in the hemodynamic model after insertion of the removed atherosclerotic plaque were 18.9 cm/ s (7.0%) and 8.2 cm/ s (11.1%), respectively. Conclusion: The study confirmed the functionality of the hemodynamic model and its possible use for studying the hemodynamic changes in carotid stenosis area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Hyperechogenicity of the substantia nigra (SN) and abnormal dopamine transporter-single-photon emission computed tomography (DAT-SPECT) are biomarkers commonly used in the assessment of prodromal synucleinopathy. Our goals were as follows: (1) to compare echogenicity of SN in idiopathic rapid eye movement (REM) behavior disorder (iRBD), Parkinson's disease (PD) without RBD (PD-noRBD), PD with RBD (PD + RBD), and control subjects; and (2) to examine association between SN degeneration assessed by DAT-SPECT and SN echogenicity.Patients/methods: A total of 61 subjects with confirmed iRBD were examined using Movement Disorders Society-unified PD rating scale (MDS-UPDRS), TCS (transcranial sonography) and DAT-SPECT. The results were compared with 44 patients with PD (25% PD + RBD) and with 120 age-matched healthy subjects.Results and Conclusion: The abnormal SN area was found in 75.5% PD, 23% iRBD and 7.3% controls. Median SN echogenicity area in PD (0.27 ± 0.22 cm2) was higher compared to iRBD (0.07 ± 0.07 cm2; p < 0.0001) and controls (0.05 ± 0.03 cm2; p < 0.0001). SN echogenicity in PD + RBD was not significantly different from PD-noRBD (0.30 vs. 0.22, p = 0.15). Abnormal DAT-SPECT was found in 16 iRBD (25.4%) and 44 PD subjects (100%). No correlation between the larger SN area and corresponding putaminal binding index was found in iRBD (r = -0.13, p = 0.29), nor in PD (r = -0.19, p = 0.22). The results of our study showed that: (1) SN echogenicity area in iRBD was higher compared to controls, but the hyperechogenicity was present only in a minority of iRBD patients; (2) SN echogenicity and DAT-SPECT binding index did not correlate in either group; and (3) SN echogenicity does not differ between PD with/without RBD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To assess the quality of life (QoL) and the factors aff ecting QoL in patients with dementia (PwD) and without dementia, and if dignity belongs to these factors. To defi ne predictors of QoL change over 2 years. Participants and Methods: The set consisted of 294 PwD (37.1% males; age 79.6 } 7.5 years; MMSE 22.7 } 1.7) and 329 patients without dementia (30.1% males; age 72.7 } 7.0 years; MMSE 29.2 } 1.3). Prospective longitudinal design (three measurements over 2 years) was used. The questionnaire set included Czech versions of standardized tools for QoL, depression, dignity, attitudes towards aging, physical fi tness, self-suffi ciency, pain, and a set of socio-demographic data. Paired t-test, chi-square test, Shapiro-Wilk test, Durbin-Watson test, and multivariate linear regression were used for the statistical analysis. Results: Depression infl uenced QoL in both groups of respondents. PwD had a higher QoL also associated with a more positive assessment of dignity, better self-suffi ciency (all P < 0.001), and a more positive attitude towards aging (P = 0.011). QoL got worse during 2 years only in PwD (P < 0.001). Predictors of deterioration in QoL were male gender (P = 0.021), loneliness ≥ 8 h per day (P = 0.001), partner-free life (P < 0.001), lower frequency of visits (P = 0.039), and higher QoL at baseline (P < 0.001). Conclusion: Dignity belongs to signifi cant factors of QoL in PwD. Social relationships and social engagement are essential for maintaining the QoL long-term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Atrophy of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) is one of the anatomical hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Transcranial sonography (TCS) is able to visualize and measure the MTL. Study aimed to test the digital image analysis of the MTL TCS image in patients with AD compared to healthy controls. Methods: Patients with AD and healthy controls were enrolled to the study. MTL and the surrounding space were imaged in the coronal plane on TCS from both sides in all enrolled subjects. All images were encoded and evaluated using B-Mode Assist software by counting the black/white ratio of the MTL. The receiver operating characteristic curve, optimal cut-off value, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were statistically evaluated. Results: A total of 78 subjects were enrolled to the study during 6 months; 31 patients with AD (14 males, mean age 76.2 ± 5.8 years) and 47 healthy controls (21 males, mean age 75.5 ± 6.4 years). A significantly lower value of MTL black/white ratio was found in patients with AD compared with healthy controls (1.63 ± 0.75 vs. 3.43 ± 1.01; P < 0.001). The optimal cut-off value of MTL black/white ratio for differentiation between patients with AD and healthy controls was 2.5 with a sensitivity of 90.3%, specificity of 87.2%, positive predictive value of 82.3% and negative predictive value of 93.2%. Conclusion: Digital image analysis of the TCS MTL images enables the measurement of the black/white ratio as a marker of MTL atrophy in patients with AD. The Editorial Board declares that the manuscript met the ICMJE "uniform requirements" for biomedical papers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Aim: Intraplaque hemorrhage (IPH) belongs to potential mechanisms of plaque instability subsequently leading to ischemic stroke. Study aims to compare the IPH occurrence in patients with symptomatic (SS), asymptomatic stable (AS) and asymptomatic progressive (AP) internal carotid artery (ICA) stenosis ≥ 50%. Materials and methods: Serial duplex ultrasound (DUS) in a 6-month period and MRI using axial 3DT1_MPRAGE sequence were used for IPH detection in patients with ICA stenosis. Stenoses in patients with ipsilateral ischemic stroke /  transient ischemic attack within the previous 4 weeks or acute ischemic lesion on diffusion-weighted MRI sequencies were evaluated as symptomatic. Stenoses with progression of > 10% since last DUS examination were evaluated as progressive. Echolucent part of atherosclerotic plaque > 8 mm2 on DUS and hyperintensity on 3DT1_MPRAGE-MRI were evaluated as IPH. Differences in IPH occurrence between SS, AS and AP ICA stenoses were statistically evaluated. Results: A total of 52 patients (33 males, mean age 69.2 ± 9.0 years) with 59 ICA stenoses were enrolled in the prospective study during 15 months; 13 ICA stenoses were evaluated as SS, 27 as AS and 19 as AP. IPH was detected using DUS/ MRI in 6 (46%) /  4 (30%) of SS, 12 (44%) /  8 (30%) of AS, and 11 (58%) /  11 (58%) of AP ICA stenoses (P > 0.05 in all cases). IPH was detected using combination of both methods in 3 (23%) of SS, 4 (15%) of AS, and 7 (36%) of AP ICA stenoses (P > 0.05 in all cases). Conclusion: IPH was more frequently detected in asymptomatic progressive than asymptomatic stable ICA stenoses. No significant differences were found between occurrence of IPH in symptomatic than in asymptomatic progressive ICA stenoses. A total of 200 patients will be enrolled in the ongoing study. The authors declare they have no potential conflicts of interest concerning drugs, products, or services used in the study. The Editorial Board declares that the manu-script met the ICMJE "uniform requirements" for biomedical papers. MUDr. Martin Roubec, Ph.D. Neurologická klinika LF Ostravské Univerzity a FN Ostrava 17. listopadu 1790/5 708 52 Ostrava e-mail: martin.roubec@fno.cz Přijato k recenzi: 26. 8. 2019 Přijato do tisku: 3. 10. 2019 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Aim: Nerve injuries, wound complications and poor cosmetic results still have an important impact on the patient's outcome after carotid endarterectomy (CEA). The study aimed to compare 30-day morbidity and cosmetic outcome between patients undergo--ing CEA us--ing short longitudinal incision (SLI) and transverse skin incision (TSI). Patients and methods: All consecutive patients with internal carotid artery stenosis > 70% indicated for CEA were included in this monocenter prospective study and randomly al-located to the SLI or TSI group. Physical and neurological examinations were performed 30 and 90 days after surgery in all patients. Cosmetic results were evaluated us--ing the Patient and Observer Scar As-ses-sment Scale (POSAS) 90 days after surgery. Results: Out of 189 enrol-led patients, SLI was used in 102 (71 males; mean age 64.0 ± 7.1 years) and TSI in 87 patients (58 males; mean age 66.4 ± 7.2 years). Stroke or transient ischemic attack occur-red dur--ing 30 days in 4 (3.9%) patients in the SLI group and in 2 (2.3%) patients in the TSI group (P = 0.689). The scar quality as-ses-sed us--ing POSAS was higher in TSI than in SLI patients (12.4 vs. 16.6 points; P < 0.01). Patients in the TSI group did better than SLI patients with regards to scar pigmentation, thicknes-s, relief, pliability and surface area (P < 0.01 in all cases). No significant dif-ferences were found in the occur-rence of local complications (8.0% in TSI and 8.8% in the SLI group; P = 1.00). Conclusion: Better cosmetic results were observed in patients after CEA us--ing TSI than SLI. No dif-ferences in 30-day morbidity and in the occur-rence of local complications were observed between the groups. The authors declare they have no potential conflicts of interest concerning drugs, products, or services used in the study. The Editorial Board declares that the manu-script met the ICMJE "uniform requirements" for biomedical papers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The presence of silent cerebral infarction (SCI) might cause cognitive dysfunction, psychiatric disorders, stroke and earlier mortality. Exact incidence and prevalence of SCI is still not known, the results of previously published clinical trials vary. The aims of our study were to detect acute and subacute SCI using MRI in patients before elective coronary intervention, measure the volume of SCI and investigate the risk factors associated with SCI. Materials and methods: Patients indicated for elective coronary angiography, angioplasty or stenting were enrolled in this study. Brain MRI was performed before cardiac intervention. The presence of acute and subacute SCI was evaluated, SCI volume was measured and risk factors associated with SCI were investigated. Cognitive functions were tested and correlated with SCI. Results: Between November 2015 and July 2017, 144 patients were enrolled in the study (103 men, 41 women). At least one acute/ subacute SCI was detected on MRI in 9 out of 144 (6.3%) patients before cardiac intervention. History of stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) was associated with a higher risk of SCI (p = 0.05). Ipsilateral internal carotid artery stenosis > 50% was dia gnosed in one patient. Patients with a history of stroke/ TIA had a larger volume of SCI (p = 0.008). We did not find stastistically significant differences in cognitive function tests between patients with SCI and without SCI (p > 0.05). Conclusion: Acute/ subacute SCI was detected in 6.3% of patients indicated for elective coronary intervention. History of stroke or TIA was a predictor of the presence of SCI and also its volume. No correlation was found between SCI and cognitive dysfunction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Česká a Slovenská Neurologie a Neurochirurgie is the property of Czech Medical Association of JE Purkyne and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Aim: The study aimed to as sess the quality of life of self-suffi cient post-stroke patients compared to control group. Material and methods: Self-sufficient patients examined in a neurosonology laboratory for carotid stenosis, aged 50-80 years, without stroke or severe disease dur ing the last 12 months, without dementia or psychiatric disease includ ing depres sion were included in the study after sign ing an Informed Consent. Patients with a history of stroke were al located to the Group A, stroke-free patients were al located to the control Group B. Fol low ing their enrol lment into the study, all patients completed two standardized quality of life question naires (WHOQOL-BREF, EQ-5D-3L). Results: Total of 504 of 584 consecutive patients complied with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Of these, 344 patients completed all items of both quality of life question naires - 145 post-stroke patients (78 males, aged 70.4 ± 7.0 years), 199 control group patients (86 males, aged 68.9 ± 8.3 years). Post-stroke patients did not diff er from patients in the control group in any domain of WHOQOL-BREF question naire - physical health (p = 0.09), psychological status (p = 0.45), social relationships (p = 0.34), environment (p = 0.45); evaluation of their quality of life (p = 0.16), present health status (p = 0.57), health status satisfaction (p = 0.44), mobility (p = 0.22), self-service (p = 0.07), activities of daily liv ing (p = 0.23), pain (p = 0.53) and anxiety (p = 0.63). Conclusions: Self-sufficient post-stroke patients did not suffer from reduced quality of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transcranial sonography (TCS) enables displaying of intracranial structures in the B-mode. Recently, TCS has been established mostly as a tool for the diagnosis and monitoring of degenerative brain disorders, less frequently also for the diagnosis and monitoring of other intracranial pathologic processes. Transtemporal and transfrontal approaches are most frequently used to display the intracranial structures. Technological advances enabled standardization of the TCS and defi nition of the standard imaging planes. These standard imaging planes enable evaluation of echogenicity and the size of the diff erent intracranial structures, such as substantia nigra, midbrain raphe, thalamus, caudate nucleus, lentiform nucleus, insular cortex, cerebral or cerebellar white matter, dentate nucleus, hippocampus and ventricular system. Pathological fi ndings of increased or decreased echogenicity, the width or the area of the individual intracranial structures can be found not only in various degenerative brain disorders, where the TCS plays the role in the diagnosis and diff erential diagnosis, but also in patients with cerebrovascular diseases, hydrocephalus or intracranial hypertension. The review brings information about usefulness of the TCS in patients with neurological and psychiatric diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]