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Background: Limited previous research has contrasted physical activity (PA) patterns in preschool children across different hourly patterns or segments of day, or adopted similar methodologies to compare the PA behaviors of children from different countries. The purpose of this study was to examine how the PA levels and patterns differed between 3- year-olds within and between childcare and homecare days in Finland and Australia.

The aim of this pilot study was to examine the immediate and long-term effects of an intervention program that aims to improve preschoolers' (N = 36, M = 4.49 years, SD = 0.35) early numeracy skills by combining the learning of numerical relational skills via story reading with fundamental motor skill practice. The intervention program was piloted with two study designs: a within-subject repeated-measures design with 18 children (study I), and a quasi-experimental study design with 18 children (study II). Children's early numeracy, symbolic magnitude processing, and fundamental motor skills were measured. Results demonstrated that children's early numeracy and especially numerical relational skills improved during the intervention, and the intervention had larger effects on children's early numeracy and numerical relational skills compared to the control period (study I) and control group (study II). Furthermore, the results from the delayed post-test demonstrated that the effects were maintained for 4.5-8 weeks after the intervention. These findings provide preliminary evidence that it is possible to support children's early numeracy skills with combined learning of numerical relational skills via story reading and fundamental motor skills despite the socioeconomic or language background, and narrow the gap between low- and average-performing children.

As a result of educational reforms in many countries, including Finland, new or renovated comprehensive schools have increasingly begun to incorporate open and flexible designs and principles. Multipurpose and adaptable open learning spaces can provide children with amplified opportunities to be physically active during general education. Classroom-based physical activity has been associated with better academic-related outcomes and students' on-task behaviour, while overall physical activity has been associated with better health. In the present study, we investigated the effects of classroom type, gender and grade level on classroom-based physical activity, and the associations between systematically-observed teachers' instructions about students' movement and classroom-based physical activity. The participants consisted of 182 3rd and 5th grade students in one school with open learning space and two schools with conventional classrooms. Overall, classroom-based physical activity, assessed with accelerometery, was not higher in open learning space than in conventional classrooms. However, 5th grade students had more sedentary time and less moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in open learning spaces than conventional classrooms, but both 3rd and 5th graders had more breaks from sedentary time in open learning spaces than conventional classrooms. Girls were more sedentary than boys, while 5th graders were less physically active than 3rd graders. Teachers' instructions regarding 5th graders' movement in open learning spaces were more restrictive and both 3rd and 5th graders had more instructed transitions in open learning spaces. In conventional classrooms, students had more teacher-organised physical activity. Teachers' restrictive guidance was associated with less light physical activity, while teachers' organised physical activity was associated with more moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

Despite the prominence of fitness testing in school physical education (PE), there is a sparsity of research examining the antecedents of students' affective experiences during fitness testing lessons. This study aimed to investigate the associations among task- and ego-involving motivational climates, perceived physical competence, physical performance, enjoyment, and anxiety during two different types of PE fitness testing lessons. Altogether, 645 Finnish students from Grade 5 (50% boys, M[subscript age] = 11.2, SD = 0.36) and Grade 8 (47% boys, M[subscript age] = 14.2, SD = 0.35) participated in two fitness testing lessons with different content (lesson 1: 20-meter shuttle run test and a test of flexibility; lesson 2: curl-ups, push-ups, 5-leaps, and a catching-throwing combination test). Students' experiences were collected using short questionnaires immediately after the lessons. Structural equation modeling was applied to examine the direct and indirect associations among study variables. Results indicated that task-involving climate and perceived competence increased students' enjoyment and decreased their anxiety levels whereas ego-involving climate had no effect on students' enjoyment but increased their anxiety levels. In addition, students' actual physical performance as a mediator between motivational climate and affects, or as a direct predictor of affects, was limited. Strategies advancing task-involving motivational climate and students' perception of competence should be employed to increase enjoyment and decrease anxiety during PE fitness testing lessons.

Abstract Background Epidemiological evidence suggests that decrease in sedentary behaviour is beneficial for health. This family based randomized controlled trial examines whether face-to-face delivered counselling is effective in reducing sedentary time and improving health in adults and increasing moderate-to-vigorous activities in children. Methods The families are randomized after balancing socioeconomic and environmental factors in the Jyväskylä region, Finland. Inclusion criteria are: healthy men and women with children 3-8 years old, and having an occupation where they self-reportedly sit more than 50% of their work time and children in all-day day-care in kindergarten or in the first grade in primary school. Exclusion criteria are: body mass index > 35 kg/m2, self-reported chronic, long-term diseases, families with pregnant mother at baseline and children with disorders delaying motor development. From both adults and children accelerometer data is collected five times a year in one week periods. In addition, fasting blood samples for whole blood count and serum metabonomics, and diurnal heart rate variability for 3 days are assessed at baseline, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months follow-up from adults. Quadriceps and hamstring muscle activities providing detailed information on muscle inactivity will be used to realize the maximum potential effect of the intervention. Fundamental motor skills from children and body composition from adults will be measured at baseline, and at 6 and 12 months follow-up. Questionnaires of family-influence-model, health and physical activity, and dietary records are assessed. After the baseline measurements the intervention group will receive tailored counselling targeted to decrease sitting time by focusing on commute and work time. The counselling regarding leisure time is especially targeted to encourage toward family physical activities such as visiting playgrounds and non-built environments, where children can get diversified stimulation for play and practice fundamental of motor skills. The counselling will be reinforced during the first 6 months followed by a 6-month maintenance period. Discussion If shown to be effective, this unique family based intervention to improve lifestyle behaviours in both adults and children can provide translational model for community use. This study can also provide knowledge whether the lifestyle changes are transformed into relevant biomarkers and self-reported health. Trial registration number ISRCTN: ISRCTN28668090

Background: Fitness testing is a commonly applied learning and teaching practice implemented in both secondary and elementary school physical education (PE). Many teachers believe that by using a variety of different tests, they are able to provide students with feedback regarding their fitness status, and furthermore, increase students' willingness to be physically active later in their lives. However, empirical evidence concerning students' affective responses during fitness testing classes is limited. Purpose: The primary aim of the study was to investigate whether students' perceptions of enjoyment and anxiety differed between two different types of fitness testing classes and PE in general. In addition, the measurement invariances over time and between Grade 5 (aged 11-12) and Grade 8 (aged 14-15) groups were determined. Method: A total sample of 645 Finnish Grade 5 (N = 328, 50% boys, mean age = 11.2, SD = 0.36) and Grade 8 students (N = 317, 47% boys, mean age = 14.2, SD = 0.35) participated in the study. Series of multi-group confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to test the level of measurement invariance between general PE and fitness testing classes, and between age groups. Strict factorial invariance was supported for both enjoyment and anxiety scales allowing for latent mean comparisons. Latent mean differences were studied using z-tests. Results: Grade 5 students perceived significantly lower levels of enjoyment and cognitive processes and a higher level of somatic anxiety in fitness testing classes compared to general PE. Additionally, for Grade 8 students, levels of enjoyment and cognitive processes were significantly lower and somatic anxiety and worry higher in fitness testing classes than in general PE. Furthermore, enjoyment was significantly higher, and cognitive processes, somatic anxiety and worry lower among Grade 5 students compared with Grade 8 students in both contextual PE and during fitness testing class. Conclusion: Results of this study indicate that students' perceptions of enjoyment were lower in fitness testing classes compared to PE in general. Additionally, students perceived lower levels of cognitive anxiety and higher levels of somatic anxiety in fitness testing classes than in general PE. It is noteworthy that students might not significantly dislike fitness testing per se but instead have significantly more positive affects towards PE in general. Generally, practitioners conducting fitness testing lessons are encouraged to embrace different strategies such as fostering basic psychological needs or promoting mastery climate to facilitate enjoyment and diminish anxiety.

Introduction: The skill domains of fundamental movement skills (FMS), emphasizing gross motor movements, including locomotor skills (LMS) and object control skills (OCS), along with process- and product-oriented measures of FMS, may predict cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and muscular fitness (MF) differently. This study investigates the longitudinal relationship from early childhood FMS, focusing on process-oriented LMS and OCS and product-oriented FMS, to CRF and MF in late childhood. Methods: The study involved 441 Finnish children (49.9% female; mean age at baseline, 5.5 yr) over a 6-yr period. FMS was evaluated using the Test of Gross Motor Development, third version, for process-oriented LMS and OCS, and the Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder (KTK) was used to evaluate the product-oriented FMS. CRF was assessed through the total number of laps completed in the 20-m shuttle run test, whereas MF was measured via repetitions of curl-ups and push-ups. Employing a two-level cross-classified regression analysis and Cholesky decomposition, this study aimed to determine the contributions of product-oriented KTK and process-oriented LMS and OCS. Adjustments for variations in age, measurement intervals, and maturation were achieved through residualization. In addition, gender and body mass index were incorporated as covariates in the analysis. Results: The analysis revealed that process-oriented LMS (CRF: ΔR² = 0.016; MF: ΔR² = 0.014) significantly predicted later health-related fitness, whereas OCS did not. However, KTK exhibited a better ability to predict both CRF (ΔR² = 0.092) and MF (ΔR² = 0.032), overshadowing process-oriented measures. Conclusions: In conclusion, the findings suggest that KTK, which potentially encompasses a broader spectrum of fitness elements along with FMS, more effectively predicts health-related fitness components than process-oriented FMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Young children's physical activity (PA) has been decreasing while their sports participation has been increasing. Therefore, the aim of this research was to longitudinally examine whether and, if so, how organised and non‐organised PA participation by early childhood education and care (ECEC)‐aged children (T1; 3–8 years) predicted their accelerometer‐measured PA at primary school age (T2; 7–11 years). Secondarily, changes in organised and non‐organised PA participation over time were investigated. The cluster‐randomised study participants comprised 501 Finnish children (52.3% girls: T1, Mage = 5.57 ± 1.06; T2, Mage = 8.80 ± 1.07). PA participation was queried via guardian questionnaire at T1 and T2. Organised PA participation was operationalised as non‐participation, participation in one sport or multisport (two or more) participation; non‐organised PA was operationalised as time spent outdoors on weekdays and on weekend days. PA at T2 was measured using accelerometers. The primary outcome was tested using linear regressions, while a paired sample t‐test and Mann–Whitney U test assessed differences between T1 and T2. The results showed outdoor time and organised sports participation increased from T1 to T2. Moreover, outdoor time at T1 predicted more moderate‐to‐vigorous PA (MVPA) and less sedentary time at T2, while multisport participation predicted significantly more MVPA and less sedentary time at T2. Overall, being outdoors and multisport participation at younger ages appear to have predicted Finnish children's later (MV) PA and sedentary behaviour. Highlights: Outdoor time and multisports in early childhood positively predicted subsequent physical activity (PA) in middle childhood.Spending more than 30 min a day outdoors of ECEC hours predicted higher subsequent MVPA and lower sedentary time at school age.Adults promoting outdoor activities and multisports support children to adopt a physically active lifestyle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The worldwide increase in childhood overweight and obesity underscores the need to study variables like fundamental movement skill (FMS) levels from early childhood. This study investigated the bidirectional longitudinal relationship between body mass index (BMI) and process-oriented FMSs, including locomotor skills and object control skills in 675 Finnish children, aged 3–8 years at baseline (50.5% female, mean age 5.5 years) over 3 years. Standardized BMI-for-age SD scores (BMI SDS z-scores) followed Finnish national standards. The FMS assessment comprised four subtests from the Test of Gross Motor Development, third edition. Age-adjusted standardized residuals of FMS or skill domains and BMI SDS z-scores were used in a two-level, cross-classified, cross-lagged regression analysis, accounting for gender, and baseline value of the dependent variables. The results showed no statistically significant longitudinal relationship between BMI and FMS or its skill domains for either gender in either direction. This suggests that BMI and process-oriented FMS, encompassing locomotor skill and object control skill, develop independently, possibly influenced by unexplored variables. These findings contradict earlier results based on product-oriented measurements, which may include a physical capacity component. The outcomes further underscore the importance of monitoring weight status from early childhood, given its significant association with later-life weight conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: We studied whether physical activity (PA) counseling for parents influenced the level of parental support of children's PA and leisure-time PA in children of different levels of initial parental support. We hypothesized that the initial level of parental support would moderate the intervention efficacy. Method: Children (n = 44, M[subscript age] = 6.09 ± 1.17 years) and their parents (n = 61) randomly assigned to an intervention group received counseling for 6 months. Children in the control group (n = 47, M[subscript age] = 6.12 ± 1.11 years) and their parents (n = 63) did not receive any counseling. Parental support was assessed using the Family Physical Activity Environment Questionnaire, and children's leisure-time PA was recorded using triaxial accelerometers at baseline, at 6 months, and at 12 months. The efficacy of the intervention was tested by linear mixed-effects modeling adjusted for confounding variables (Model 1) and additionally for children's participation in organized PA or sports (Model 2). Results: Parents within the lowest initial parental support intervention tertile significantly increased their support, and their children's mean level of leisure-time PA significantly improved compared with the corresponding controls during the counseling period. On the other hand, intervention was found to have an unfavorable influence especially in the PA of children of initially highly supportive parents. Conclusion: Targeting PA counseling for parents with low support of their children's PA could contribute to better family-based PA counseling efficacy.

The aim of the current study was to determine Finnish and Dutch three-year-old preschool children's physical activity (PA) levels and how levels vary across gender, location, time of day and social contexts in both countries. A modified version of the Observational System for Recording Physical Activity in Children-Preschool (OSRAC-P) was used to measure children's PA levels and contextual variables (e.g. group composition, prompts) of children attending childcare centres in Finland and the Netherlands. In total, 90 Finnish children (46 boys and 44 girls) and 97 Dutch children (46 boys and 51 girls) were observed. Three-level linear regression analyses with cross level interactions were used to assess differences between the countries in the association between the context variables and PA. During the observations, the present sample of children was mostly sedentary in nature. Outdoor location and prompts (both positive and negative) were associated with higher levels of activity in both countries. Non-solitary playing was associated with higher activity levels in the Netherlands, but not in Finland, whereas child-initiated play was positively associated with Finnish but not Dutch children's PA levels. Finnish children were more active in the morning compared to the afternoon, while in the Dutch children PA was unaffected by time. The present findings indicate that better understanding of the contextual factors and interactions in children's PA behaviours across the two countries could help in planning childcare interventions to increase the PA levels of preschool children.

Background: Physical education is a subject that generates strong feelings and emotions, as can be seen in written accounts of PE experiences. It is also important to listen to students' voices in the research context. Nowadays, students can be listened to in a new way--through the Internet. Various discussion forums on the Internet make it possible for people to express themselves through real or imagined messages. It might be easier to express highly sensitive and even intimate thoughts on the Internet. Thus, the Internet might be an interesting open forum for teachers to think about new ways of developing teaching practices that would reduce negative experiences of PE. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine what kinds of extrinsic factors underlie the opinions expressed in Internet discussion forums on experiences of PE in Finnish schools. Research design: The data for this research were collected from open Internet discussion forums during a randomly chosen week in April 2007. Using qualitative content analysis all the messages (total n = 356) from nine forums were grouped into positive, both positive and negative, and negative messages. The messages were divided into smaller segments such as paragraphs, sentences or even words, and labelled opinions (total n = 652). Data analysis: Based on Carlson's model, these opinions were further grouped into intrinsic and extrinsic factors. This study concentrated on the extrinsic factors behind the opinions, as these can more easily be influenced by pedagogical developments. Six extrinsic factors were identified: teacher's personality and behaviour, curriculum, assessment, class environment, facilities and equipment, and out of school influences and other factors. Findings: The results showed clearly that of the total of extrinsic factors only 8% were in the category of positive opinions and up to 61% in the category of negative opinions. The findings revealed that the teacher plays a crucial role in students' enjoyment of PE, as is indicated by the fact that the personality and behaviour of the teacher was mentioned the most often (40% of all opinions). Almost every fourth opinion concerned the class environment. In the third place, accounting for 16% of opinions, were issues related to the curriculum. Conclusions: Based on the results of the study, we conclude that more focus is needed on the pedagogical and emotional aspects of the learning environment. In PE teacher training it should be ensured that all future teachers have good socio-emotional skills and tools for creating a safe class environment. Teachers also need to widen their understanding on the strong role of emotions and experiences, as these can include humiliation and shame.

Objective: The main aim was to examine the association between fundamental movement skills (FMS) and objectively measured body composition using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Methods: A study of 304 eight-year-old children in Finland. FMS were assessed with the "Test of gross motor development," 2nd ed. Total body fat percentage (BF%), abdominal region fat percentage (AF%) and fat-free mass (FFM) were assessed by DXA. Waist circumference, height and weight were measured, and International Obesity Task Force cut-off values for body mass index were used for the definition of healthy weight and overweight/obesity. Results: Better FMS proficiency (object control, locomotor and total FMS) was significantly and strongly associated with lower BF% and lower AF% measured with DXA. Conclusions: The inverse association between FMS and body composition measured with DXA (BF% and AF%) is an important finding, as body fatness and specifically abdominal fatness are associated with less favourable cardiovascular risk factor status in children.

We investigated direct and indirect cross-sectional associations of physical activity, fundamental motor skills, executive functions, and early numeracy in preschoolers. The participants were 214 preschoolers aged three to five years. Time spent in moderate and vigorous physical activity was measured by hip-worn accelerometers and fundamental motor skills using the tasks assessing locomotor, object control, and stability skills. Inhibition/switching and working memory/updating, as components of executive functions, were assessed by computerised tests and a standardised test was used to assess early numeracy. Path analyses were used to examine direct and indirect associations between the constructs. Our results showed that stability skills were indirectly positively associated with early numeracy through inhibition/switching (β = 0.07, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.02, 0.14]) and locomotor skills through working memory/updating (β = 0.13, p = 0.001, 95% CI [0.06, 0.20]). Vigorous physical activity was positively associated with early numeracy through locomotor skills and working memory/updating (β = 0.04, p = 0.01, 95% CI [0.01, 0.07]) and negatively associated with early numeracy through inhibition/switching (β = −0.06, p < 0.05, 95% CI [−0.11, −0.02]). Highlights Locomotor skills are positively associated with early numeracy through working memory/updating. Stability skills are positively associated with early numeracy through inhibition/switching. Vigorous physical activity is indirectly associated with early numeracy: Positively through locomotor skills and working memory/updating and negatively through inhibition/switching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main purpose of the study was to determine 3-year-olds' physical activity levels and how these vary across season, gender, time of day, location, and the physical and social environment in childcare settings in Finland. A modified version of the Observational System for Recording Physical Activity in Children-Preschool (OSRAC-P) was used to measure physical activity levels and contextual variables (e.g., group composition, prompts) of children attending childcare centres. In total, 81 children (42 boys and 39 girls) were observed in autumn and in winter. Three-level linear regression analyses were used to assess differences between the seasons in the association between the context variables and physical activity. During the observations, the present sample of children was mostly sedentary in nature, engaging in moderate to vigorous physical activity in only 2% of all observations. The results further showed a significant difference between season and the children's physical activity levels: in winter, the children spent significantly more time in sedentary-level activities and less time in moderate to vigorous physical activity than in autumn. The present sample of children was physically more active outdoors than indoors. Boys showed significantly higher physical activity levels than girls. The majority of the observations did not include any oral prompting. We conclude that childcare centres offer good opportunities to increase children's physical activity. Interventions should focus on enhancing children's outdoor time, free play, and positive prompting and encouragement by teachers.

The purposes of this study were to assess seasonal, daily, and gender variations in children's physical activity (PA). ActiGraph GT3X accelerometers were used to record the three-year-old children's PA levels for five consecutive days in autumn and winter. Complete data for both seasons were obtained for 47 children. Despite a significant difference in seasonal temperatures (p?

This article is based on a phenomenographic study that focuses on identifying the pedagogical conceptions of Finnish teachers of transnational dances. The purpose is to uncover and understand teachers' conceptions concerning the implications of the cultural contexts of their specific dance forms for their pedagogical practices. Through a process of phenomenographic data analysis, the authors have identified three different ways to understand teachers' conceptions and experiences: (1) Dance as a path towards personal expression, (2) Telling a story of being a woman through dance, and (3) Self-approval and the collective nature of dance. The study aims at facilitating discussion about the process of cultural dialogue, especially within dance pedagogy. Understanding the complexity that diverse cultural contexts create is particularly important in countries like Finland, which have only brief histories of multicultural education.