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Background and Aims We evaluated three native plants to determine their capacity to provide insectary benefits to predatory arthropods in vineyards, and thereby to enhance biological control of insect pests. Native plants are preferred as supplementary flora, as they are naturally adapted to Australia's climatic conditions. Methods and Results Stands of mature Bursaria spinosa, Leptospermum continentale and Rytidosperma ssp. located adjacent to or in the mid‐rows of Adelaide Hills and Barossa Valley vineyards were sampled for arthropods in 2013/14. Vitis vinifera was also sampled. Twenty seven thousand and ninety‐one individual invertebrate specimens were collected, comprising 20 orders and 287 morphospecies. Nine thousand and thirty‐six predators, 6790 herbivores and 11 265 other specimens were collected. Predatory arthropods dominated the diversity of morphospecies present on each plant. Out of 100 predatory morphospecies, 69 were found on B. spinosa, 65 on L. continentale, 55 on V. vinifera and 37 in association with Rytidosperma ssp. The difference between predatory and herbivore morphospecies was highest on Rytidosperma ssp. (2.18:1 predators : herbivores), followed by L. continentale, V. vinifera and B. spinosa. Conclusions Bursaria spinosa and L. continentale have the potential to be used as insectary plants in association with Australian vineyards, as they support populations of predatory arthropods throughout the year. Rytidosperma ssp. could provide insectary benefits on sites where the black Portuguese millipede, Ommatoiulus moreleti, is not considered to be a problem. Significance of the Study This study confirms associations between predatory arthropods and three native plants. The opportunity to plant selected native insectary species could help winegrape growers save time and resources by producing fruit with lower pest incidence, while enhancing biodiversity of their vineyards.

The importance of plant-soil feedback is becoming widely acknowledged; however, how different soil conditions influence these interactions is still relatively unknown. Using soil from a degraded old-field and a remnant grassland, we aimed to explore home-field advantages in plant-soil feedbacks and plant responses to the abiotic and biotic soil conditions. We quantified the soil bacterial and fungal community from these sites and their responses to soil conditions and plant species. Sterilized old-field and remnant-grassland soil was inoculated with home or away soil in a reciprocal transplant experiment using a native grass, Rytidosperma auriculatum, and an invasive grass, Avena barbata, as test species. The soil fungal and bacterial communities were characterised using high throughput sequencing. Plants had a greater growth response to microbes when an inoculant was added to its home soil. However, this relationship is complex, with microbial communities changing in response to the plant species and soil type. The apparent home-field advantage of the soil microbes shown in this study may restrict the utility of inoculants as a management tool. However, since we inoculated sterile soil, future work should focus on understanding how the inoculated microbial community interacts and competes with resident communities.

Native grasslands, and the fauna that inhabit them, are globally some of the most threatened ecosystems and organisms. Knowledge of the relative importance of climate, landscape context and site-based resources for local insect populations is critical for the restoration and conservation of these communities. We investigated the site and landscape-scale best predictors of occurrence and abundance over three consecutive years of sampling, for the critically endangered golden sun moth Synemon plana in south-eastern Australia. We found eight vegetation factors to be significantly associated with golden sun moth occurrence using data from combined survey data and data for each year alone; we identified just three common factors from year to year. Modelling indicated that Austrostipa and Rytidosperma species richness was the most consistent parameter, but for each year alone, there was a combination of aspect, landscape position and Austrostipa and Rytidosperma species richness. Our study shows that environmental characteristics where golden sun moth occur are relatively predictable over multiple years. This information can be used to protect sites where monitoring of extant populations is yet to occur, predict the location of new populations in the region, and restore adjacent habitat that is suitable but degraded.

In a summer-dominant high-rainfall, yet seasonally dry environment, soil water dynamics and dry-matter (DM) production were monitored during 2006–12, for three perennial pasture types: old man saltbush (Atriplex nummularia ssp. nummularia with native grass), native grass (Bothriochloa macra and Rytidosperma bipartita dominant) and lucerne (Medicago sativa cv. Venus). Plant root depth of the old man saltbush pasture (1·5 m) was greater than that of native grass (1·2 m), but equal to that of lucerne (1·5 m), resulting in equivalent levels of maximum extractable water (MEW; mm, 0–1·7 m) for saltbush and lucerne in five of the six seasons. Lucerne (MEW 242 mm) extracted more soil water than native grass (144 mm), but was similar to old man saltbush (205 mm). In the second year of growth, both the lucerne and old man saltbush pastures achieved their maximum yields of 16·8 and 7·9 t DM ha−1 respectively, but thereafter declined. The decline in yield of lucerne in later years was associated with a significantly lower plant frequency and increase in proportion of weeds. The decline in yield of old man saltbush appeared to be associated with an increasingly dry soil profile, despite receiving rainfall that was above average. The yield of the native grass pasture increased during the study as the proportion of weeds declined, and the presence of saltbush plants did not compromise the yield of perennial grasses in the inter-row spaces. The implications of these findings for livestock production systems in this environment are discussed.

Rytidosperma species are native Australian grasses which have different growth rates and phosphorus (P) requirements. This study examined the role of root morphology traits in response to P supply. Nine Rytidosperma species ranging from slow- to fast-growth were examined along with Lolium perenne and Bromus hordeaceus. Plants were grown in a glasshouse for 47 days in soil supplied with six levels of P between 0 and 60 mg P per pot. Root mass, length and diameter, root hair length and density, and extent of mycorrhizal colonisation were measured. Across all species there was a positive correlation (P

We provide a summary of two recent studies that investigated the role that three native insectary plants can play in promoting predatory arthropods, and thereby to enhance biological control of vineyard pests in Australia. Native plants are preferred as supplementary flora, as they are locally-adapted to Australia's climatic conditions. Stands of mature Bursaria spinosa, Leptospermum continentale and Rytidosperma ssp. located adjacent to, or in vineyards, in South Australia were sampled for arthropods in 2013/14. Grapevines were also sampled to explore relationships between each plant and associated arthropods using common diversity indices. Twenty seven thousand and ninety-one individual invertebrate specimens were collected, comprising 20 orders and 287 morphospecies. These were categorised into functional groups of predators, herbivores and other. Predatory arthropods dominated the diversity of morphospecies present on each plant. The richness of predator morphospecies across all plant types was nearly double the number found in association with grapevines. It may be possible to increase the functional diversity of predatory arthropods by more than 3x when either B. spinosa or L. continentale is present versus grapevines only, and increase the net number of predator morphospecies by around 27% when Rytidosperma ssp. are planted in combination with grapevines. The selected plants provide a suitable habitat to support diverse and functional populations of predatory arthropods. The opportunity to plant selected native insectary species could help wine grape growers save time and resources by producing fruit with lower pest incidence, while enhancing biodiversity associated with vineyards.

Rytidosperma species (formerly Austrodanthonia) are native grasses common in temperate grasslands of southern Australia. Nine Rytidosperma species, Lolium perenne and Bromus hordeaceus were grown as microswards in pots in a glasshouse, and their growth response to six levels of applied P was measured. Shoot yield differed up to twofold between the highest- and lowest-yielding Rytidosperma species. Some Rytidosperma species were slow growing with minimal ability to respond to increased soil P availability. However, three species, Rytidosperma duttonianum, Rytidosperma racemosum and Rytidosperma richardsonii, had a similar shoot yield to L. perenne. Species that grew well at high P also grew well at low P, except B. hordeaceus, which was the lowest-yielding species at low P, but had among the highest yields at high P. No species showed evidence of P toxicity. The species exhibited a range in critical external P requirement (i.e. amount of P applied for 90% maximum yield). Among the fast-growing Rytidosperma species, R. richardsonii was notable because it had a low critical external P (16·3 mg P pot−1) and high agronomic P-use efficiency (94·1 g DW g−1 P applied). In contrast, R. duttonianum had a higher critical external P requirement (22·4 mg P pot−1) and lower agronomic P-use efficiency (85 g DW g−1 P applied). It was concluded that it is important to know which Rytidosperma species are present in a grassland to understand how it may respond to P fertilization. The results help to explain the diverse opinions expressed about the productivity of pastures containing Rytidosperma species.

Rytidosperma s.l., wallaby grasses and allies, is in dire need of a single, unanimously accepted generic taxonomy. Motivated by the desire to establish a generic classification that complies with phylogeny, we investigated how much phylogenetic signal is contained within a plastid (cpDNA) tree, given that the nrDNA tree (ITS) was uninformative and that a phylogenetic hypothesis based on a single genome may not be reliable. We find that the plastid tree is significantly different from a morphological cladogram and show that this is the result of homoplasy in the morphological dataset. Treated individually, several morphological characters fit the plastid tree very well. Similarly, we find a good fit of the plastid tree with ecological and distribution characters and with biogeographical patterns in the Southern Hemisphere. We conclude that a significant level of the species phylogeny is resolved by the plastid tree and are confident it can form a sound basis for a reconsideration of generic limits. None of the currently recognised seven genera in the Rytidosperma clade is monophyletic. Therefore, we propose combining the segregate genera in Australasia within a broadly construed Rytidosperma, including all the species from Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and South America.

The grass subfamily Danthonioideae is one of the smaller in the family. We utilize DNA sequence data from three chloroplast regions (trnL, rpoC2 and rbcL) and one nuclear region (Internal Transcribed Spacer; ITS) both singly and in combi- nation to elucidate the relationships of the genera in the subfamily. The topology retrieved by the ITS region is not congruent with that of the plastid data, but this conflict is not strongly supported. Nine well- supported clades are retrieved by all data sets. The relationships at the base of the subfamily are clearly established, comprising a series of three clades of Merxmuellera species. The earliest diverging clade probably does not belong in Danthonioideae. The other two clades are centered in the tropical African mountains and Cape mountains respectively. A clade of predominantly North and South American Danthonia species as well as D. archboldii from New Guinea is retrieved, but the African and Asian species of Danthonia are related to African species of Merxmuellera, thus rendering Danthonia polyphy- letic. The relationships of the Danthonia clade remain equivocal, as do those of the two Cortaderia clades, the Pseudopentameris and Rytidosperma clades.

This study comprised a scanning electron microscope survey of abaxial epidermal features in subfamily Danthonioideae, with emphasis on North American Danthonia. The survey included 21 taxa, encompassing seven genera (Austrodanthonia, Cortaderia, Danthonia, Merxmuellera, Notodanthonia, Rytidosperma, Tribolium) and the eight North American Danthonia species. We investigated micromorphological characters to determine taxonomic utility and whether North American representatives of Danthonia are distinct. We examined micromorphological epidermal features: macrohairs, bicellular microhairs, prickle hairs, silica bodies, and stomata. We found no distinguishing characters at the subfamilial level. Danthonia is characterized by the absence of abaxial stomata and presence of bicellular microhairs with basal and terminal cells of equal length and microhairs with long basal cells relative to terminal cells. Prickle hairs in the abaxial epidermal costal regions of four species of North American Danthonia are reported for the first time.

Of the 90-95 species included in the Rytidosperma clade of grasses (Danthonioideae: Poaceae) about 20 are native to southern Africa, most of these belonging to the genera Karroochloa, Schismus and Tribolium. Whereas morphological data identify all three genera as being monophyletic, the robustness of this pattern is compromised by high levels of homoplasy. Here we use molecular data (plastid trnL-trnF and nuclear ITS sequences) to re-evaluate phylogenetic relationships within the Rytidosperma clade, with the specific aim of testing the monophyly of the African genera. Separate parsimony analyses of the two partitions reveal low levels of incongruence, which may be attributable to incomplete lineage sorting or past hybridization. Analyses of the combined data produce well resolved, strongly supported topologies that are virtually identical, regardless of the inference method used (parsimony or Bayesian inference) or whether or not "conflict" taxa are included. Our data support the monophyly of the Rytidosperma clade (synapomorphies include a punctate-ovate hilum, a large embryo, and lodicule microhairs) as well as the monophyly of the Australasian-South American Rytidosperma s.l. However, the monophyly of Karroochloa, Schismus and Tribolium is strongly contradicted, all three genera being polyphyletic as currently defined. Although not implemented here, a minimum of five new combinations would be required to rectify this situation. Character reconstructions reveal extensive convergence in a number of morphological features, especially those previously used to define genera. We suggest that the convergent pattern of evolution displayed by these traits, most of which describe spikelet/diaspore morphology, is linked to their functionality in seed dispersal and burial, and that this has compromised their utility as phylogenetic markers.

The newly erected grass subfamily Danthonioideae encompasses four New Zealand genera viz Chionochloa, Cortaderia, Pyrrhanthera, and Rytidosperma, 43 endemic species comprise it. In Rytidosperma new chromosome counts confirm earlier reports of diploid and hexaploid species and report tetraploids (2n = 48) as an additional level of ploidy. In Pyrrhanthera 2n =, c. 156, which is the highest chromosome number in the subfamily and second highest recorded in the Gramineae. New Zealand species of Cortaderia should not be included in the same clade as South American species according to cladistic analyses of rpoC2 and ITS sequences. Morphologically this separation fails. Monophyletic Chionochloa is generically secure. Earlier data on the triterpene methyl ethers (TMEs) isolated from the epicuticular leaf wax of species of Chionochloa and Cortaderia are interpreted along modern pathways of the biosynthesis of the precursor sterols and triterpenols, and their subsequent methylation. In Chionochloa where 18...

Background and aims The ability of plant lineages to reach all continents contributes substantially to their evolutionary success. This is exemplified by the Poaceae, one of the most successful angiosperm families, in which most higher taxa (tribes, subfamilies) have global distributions. Due to the old age of the ocean basins relative to the major angiosperm radiations, this is only possible by means of long-distance dispersal (LDD), yet the attributes of lineages with successful LDD remain obscure. Polyploid species are over-represented in invasive floras and in the previously glaciated Arctic regions, and often have wider ecological tolerances than diploids; thus polyploidy is a candidate attribute of successful LDD. Methods The link between polyploidy and LDD was explored in the globally distributed grass subfamily Danthonioideae. An almost completely sampled and well-resolved species-level phylogeny of the danthonioids was used, and the available cytological information was assembled. The cytological evolution in the clade was inferred using maximum likelihood (ML) as implemented in ChromEvol. The biogeographical evolution in the clade was reconstructed using ML and Bayesian approaches. Key results Numerous increases in ploidy level are demonstrated. A Late Miocene-Pliocene cycle of polyploidy is associated with LDD, and in two cases (the Australian Rytidosperma and the American Danthonia) led to secondary polyploidy. While it is demonstrated that successful LDD is more likely in polyploid than in diploid lineages, a link between polyploidization events and LDD is not demonstrated. Conclusions The results suggest that polyploids are more successful at LDD than diploids, and that the frequent polyploidy in the grasses might have facilitated the extensive dispersal among continents in the family, thus contributing to their evolutionary success.

Climate profiles were developed for 14 temperate C3 and subtropical C4 pasture species using the BIOCLIM procedure and survey data from 583 pasture sites throughout New Zealand. The species profiles differed in maximum and minimum thresholds for 27 solar radiation, temperature, and rainfall parameters. A cluster analysis detected three climate profile types. Cluster 1 species (Lolium perenne, Dactylis glomerata, Trifolium repens, Agrostis capillaris) differed from the others in the tolerance of drier, cooler, and lower solar radiation environments. Cluster 2 species (Rytidosperma racemosum, Sporobolus africanus, Paspalum dilatatum) showed greater tolerance of cooler and drier environments than species in Cluster 3 (Paspalum distichum, Setaria geniculata, Pennisetum clandestinum, Eleusine indica, Digitaria sanguinalis, Cynodon dactylon,Axonopus affinis). The results confirm broad differences in climate thresholds between C3 and C4 pasture species but the climate profile of the C3 species R. racemo...

Linder, H. Peter (Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7700, South Africa) 1997. Nomenclatural corrections in the Rytidosperma complex (Danthonieae, Poaceae). Telopea 7(3): 269–274. In a recent paper, Linder and Verboom proposed a new genus, Thonandia, but included the type of Notodanthonia Zotov in this new genus. Consequently, the species transferred to Thonandia should be under Notodanthonia, while the species placed by Linder and Verboom under Notodanthonia need a new generic name. The name Austrodanthonia Linder is proposed, and the relevant new combinations are made.

Rytidosperma species are perennial grasses found in cool temperate grasslands of Australia. The species differ in their intrinsic growth rates, response to phosphorus (P) fertiliser application and critical external P requirements (P required for 90% maximum growth). The present study examined whether internal P-utilisation efficiency (PUE) by Rytidosperma species influenced these differences. The PUE of nine Rytidosperma species and two grasses of Mediterranean origin, Bromus hordeaceus L. and Lolium perenne L., was assessed using alternative measures of shoot P concentration or its reciprocal. No measure of PUE was correlated with the critical external P requirements of the species. One measure of PUE, shoot dry matter per unit P, when assessed at a common shoot P content was correlated with potential growth rate (P

Rytidosperma vickeryae, a new species of danthonioid grass, is described, and detailed information on the morphology, anatomy, cytology and embryology of the species is provided. The phylogenetic relationships among the Australasian species of Rytidosperma s.s. are analysed, by parsimony-based methods. The new species is shown to be the sister species of R. thomsonii from New Zealand. The phytogeographical implications of this are analysed, by area-optimisation methods as well as methods which search for area relationships. This suggests that the Australasian species of Rytidosperma radiated from an ancestral area in Tasmania, followed by dispersal to New Zealand, and repeated dispersal northwards to Kosciuszko and New Guinea. R. vickeryae appears to have originated as the result of a dispersal event from New Zealand to Kosciuszko.

Phylogenetic relationships of the genera in the subfamily Arundinoideae are examined using sequence data from a variable insert in the plastid rpoC2 gene. Results suggest that the Arundinoideae com- prise several lineages as well as misplaced taxa. Two of the larger lineages correspond to the tribes Arundineae and Danthonieae. The Arundineae as delimited here are not clearly defined, and this analysis does not provide much insight into the composition of the lineage. In contrast the Danthonieae are clearly defined by molecular, as well as morphological, data. The results indicate that several groups may be recog- nised within the Danthonieae: a group centred on the African genus Pentaschistis, a widespread group includ- ing Rytidosperma, Tribolium, and several other austral genera, as well as a group including Danthonia s.s. and two small Australian genera. In addition, there are some indications that both Merxmuellera and Cortaderia may not be monophyletic.

The oecurrence of Uromyces danthoniae McAlp. on Rytidosperma spp. and of U. macnabbii Cummins on Chionochloa spp. in New Zealand is reassessed after taxonomie revisions and re-identifieation of the host plants. Three rust fungi are recorded for the first time from New Zealand: Puccinia rara MeKenzie on Dichelachne spp., P. polypogonobia McKenzie on Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf., and P. kenmorensis Cummins on Bothriochloa macra Blake. New host records for rust fungi previously recorded in New Zealand are noted, and three previous reeords are deleted.

Species formerly included in the genus Notodanthonia Zotov are transferred to Rytidosperma Steudel, an earlier name. Three new species are described for New Zealand. Australian and New Guinean s~ecieasr e transferred from Danthonia DC. to Rytidosperma where appropriate.

Synergids with a haustorial projection, which extends through the micropyle to lie between the ovule and ovary wall, are described for seven danthonioid genera: Chionochloa, Danthonia, Erythranthera, Lamprothyrsus, Pyrrhanthera, Rytidosperma, and Sieglingia; they were already known in Cortaderia. Normal pyriform graminoid synergids were found in the arundinoid genera Arundo and Phragmites. The distribution of this character among genera is in accord with the traditional tribal arrangements of the grasses, except for Cortaderia, which now seems better treated as danthonioid rather than arundinoid. Synergids that extend as haustoria are interpreted as derived from the normal graminoid type even though they occur, so far, in old, highly polyploid genera.

A danthonoid genus of grasses with about 52 species occurs from South America through New Zealand and Australia to Malesia. Most species occur in New Zealand (23) and Australia (28), and especially in the first country are best known as Notodanthonia Zotov (1963). There are older synonyms, however. The type of Plinthanthesis Steud. (1853) is not P. urvillei Steud., but P. tenuior Steud., a Notodanthonia. Plinthanthesis is proposed for rejection and in the sense of S. T. Blake (1972) renamed Blakeochloa Veldk., nom. nov. Rytidosperma Steud. (1854) has recently been revised for South America (5 species); the type is R. lechleri Steud., identical withR. glabra (Phil.) Nicora; Notodanthonia has been placed in its synonymy, but the necessary new combinations have not yet been made (about 50). Monostachya Merr. (1910) from Malesia (1 species) is linked by intermediate species to Notodanthonia. Notodanthonia is proposed for conservation as it is the best known for the genus, longest in general use, and the least new combinations are required.

Fifteen species of indigenous grasses are considered to be at some conservation risk. One species of Poa is dioecious; all other taxa bear perfect flowers. Self-compatibility is common and expressed as cleistogamy in Bromus arenarius. Rytidosperma tenue appears to be sterile; no other species is at particular risk because of its breeding system.

Gramen perenne, caespitosum; culmi erecti vel leviter geniculati, 25-40 cm alti. Foliorum laminae glaucae, late lineares, planae, 3-5-7 cm x 1-5 mm, supra pubescentes, subtus glabrae. Inflorescentiae terminales et axillares, e racemis 2 constantes; racemi 2-5-3 cm longi, pilosi; internodia pedicellique crasse lineares, leviter inflati, purpurascentes, pilis luteis fimbriati, dorsaliter puberuli. Spicula sessilis 4-5 mm longa; gluma inferior anguste oblongo-elliptica, dorso profunde concava, lateraliter carinata, inter carinas sine nervis, bidentata; carinis apicem versus exalatis; gluma superior navicularis, acuta; anthoecium inferum sterile, lemmate anguste lanceolato 3-5 mm longo hyalino; palea nulla; anthoecium superum hermaphroditum; lemma anguste lanceolatum, 3-5 mm longum, hyalinum, ad medium bifidum, e sinu aristam glabram geniculatam 10-15 mm longam gerens; palea ovata, obtusa vel subacuta, c. 1 mm longa, hyalina. Spicula pedicellata lanceolata, 3-7-4-5 mm longa, acuta, nervis laevibus, exaristata.

In our paper on Rytidosperma in late 1979 (Connor & Edgar 1979) we proposed the new combination R. tenuius. We were unaware that this particular combination had been made earlier in the year, in January, by A. Hansen & P. Sunding in the “Flora of Macaronesia; Checklist of Vascular Plants” (Eriksson, Hansen. & Sunding 1979).

SUMMARY (1) In a perennial grassland undergoing succession after the removal of domestic grazers, three natural processes could disrupt the canopy, and thus affect colonization. These are: canopy gap formation due to the death of individual bunchgrasses; soil disturbance by gophers; and grazing by native animals. (2) Species' abilities to colonize canopy gaps and gopher mounds were assessed in the field, with seed introduction experiments, for the five most cover-dominant grass species: Anthoxanthum odoratum, Holcus lanatus, Deschampsia holciformis, Rytidosperma pilosum (all perennial bunchgrasses) and Vulpia bromoides (an annual grass). (3) The effects of native grazers on colonization by the most abundant species, Anthoxanthum, were assessed, using grazer exclosures and seed introductions in annualdominated vegetation, where grazing activity was highest. (4) Colonization success was quantified as total leaf area, number of survivors and seed production, in sites where seeds of the colonist either fell naturally, or were introduced at natural densities. (5) The formation of canopy gaps by the death of individual bunchgrasses and soil disturbances by gophers strongly affected colonization success. The best colonizers were Anthoxanthum and Holcus, whose colonization success was increased 6-2500-fold by canopy gap formation, and 10-200-fold by the formation of gopher mounds. Few, small seedlings of Deschampsia and Rytidosperma survived in canopy gaps or on gopher mounds. Unlike Anthoxanthum and Holcus, Deschampsia and Rytidosperma did not reproduce in gaps or on mounds over a two-year period. (6) Vulpia colonists had higher seed production on mounds than the four perennials. Vulpia also colonized canopy gaps, but was excluded by perennial vegetation in the second year of growth in the gaps. (7) In annual-dominated vegetation, neither aboveground biomass nor colonization by Anthoxanthum was affected by excluding grazers. However, exclusion of grazers led to an increase in the cover of forbs after two years. Clipping aboveground vegetation allowed Rytidosperma to achieve dominance in sites where, under undisturbed conditions, it existed only as a suppressed understorey. All other perennials were negatively affected by clipping. (8) The species with the highest natural densities of seed rain also had the greatest perseed colonization success, even though negative density-dependent effects must have been