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Pharmacologic inhibitors of the cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) are capable of increasing HDL cholesterol by 50% to 100% in humans. Despite intriguing antiatherogenic effects of CETP inhibition in animal models of atherosclerosis, the Investigation of Lipid Level Management to Understand its Impact in Atherosclerotic Events trial investigators observed an excess of cardiovascular and noncardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the use of the CETP inhibitor torcetrapib. This review summarizes available clinical and experimental data about potential underlying mechanisms.

Endothelin-1 exerts vasoactive, pro-inflammatory, hypertrophic, and profibrotic properties on the heart, kidney, and blood vessels. Hence, endothelin-receptor antagonists hold the potential to reduce blood pressure and to prevent complications of hypertension, atherosclerosis, and diabetes through blood pressure-independent effects on cardiovascular growth, inflammation, and fibrosis. These potentially important effects of endothelin antagonism may contribute to its therapeutic potential in hypertension and other cardiovascular disorders, including chronic renal failure and diabetes. First clinical trial evidence demonstrates a moderate reduction in blood pressure in studies of patients with mild-to-moderate essential hypertension and patients with resistant hypertension. Future large-scale randomized clinical trials will provide more insight into whether the blood-pressure reduction and promising pleiotropic effects observed with several members of this novel class of drugs, which are already established therapy in pulmonary hypertension, will translate into clinical benefit in patients with arterial hypertension.

An increasing body of evidence suggests that elevated levels of blood pressure may induce a proinflammatory response. Indeed, both C-reactive protein and blood pressure are independent determinants of cardiovascular risk, and, in combination, each parameter has additional predictive value. Hence, strategies targeted to lower blood pressure and reduce vascular inflammation may potentially provide clinical benefit. In this review, we discuss the role of chronic low-grade inflammation in the context of cardiovascular disease with a focus on roles of cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 in potential anti-inflammatory treatment strategies.

Transgenic overexpression of erythropoietin (Epo) in mice increases haematocrit to a mean of 80% in adult mice, leading to an increase in blood viscosity and volume. As a consequence, renal tissue endothelin-1 (ET-1) concentrations are significantly elevated in erythropoietin-overexpressing (Epo+) mice (mean+/-S.E.M; Epo+, 798+/-71; Epo-, 400+/-25 pg/g tissue; P<0.01). To investigate the pattern of expression of the primary translation product of the ET-1 gene, prepro-ET-1, in kidneys of (Epo+) mice, we generated crossbred mice overexpressing the human EPO gene with mice carrying a reporter gene construct expressing the LacZ gene under the control of the human prepro-ET-1 promotor sequence (LacZ+/Epo+). For comparison, we generated (LacZ+/Epo-) mice from the same strains. After Bluo-Gal staining of frozen kidney sections (n=10 in each group), intracellular blue precipitates as indicators of prepro-ET-1 promotor activity were detectable in tubular and vascular endothelium and glomerular cells in (LacZ+/Epo-) as well as (LacZ+/Epo+) mice. Comparison of the amount of blue precipitates by semiquantitative scoring showed a significant increase in reporter gene activity in tubular epithelium of (LacZ+/Epo+) mice (mean+/-S.E.M.; LacZ+/Epo+, 1.64+/-0.18; LacZ+/Epo-, 1.00+/-0.19; P<0.05). Reporter gene activity was not significantly elevated in epithelium of small intrarenal arteries of (LacZ+/Epo+) mice (mean+/-S.E.M.; LacZ+/Epo+, 0.86+/-0.14; LacZ+/Epo-, 0.38+/-0.21; P=0.08) and was similar in glomerular cells (mean+/-S.E.M.; LacZ+/Epo+, 1.28+/-0.16; LacZ+/Epo-, 1.14+/-0.21; P=0.6). The main source of elevated ET-1 tissue concentration in kidneys of (Epo+) mice therefore seems more likely to be tubular than vascular endothelium or glomerular cells.

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a disease process characterized by impaired left ventricular function, increased peripheral and pulmonary vascular resistance and reduced exercise tolerance and dyspnea. Thus, mediators involved in the control of myocardial function and vascular tone may be involved in its pathophysiology. The family of endothelins (ET) consists of four closely related peptides, ET-1, ET-2, ET-3, and ET-4, which cause vasoconstriction, cell proliferation, and myocardial effects through activation of ET(A) receptors. In contrast, endothelial ET(B) receptors mediate vasodilation via release of nitric oxide and prostacyclin. In addition, ET(B) receptors in the lung are a major pathway for the clearance of ET-1 from plasma. Thus, infusion of an ET(A) receptor antagonist into the brachial artery in healthy humans leads to vasodilation whereas infusion of an ET(B) receptor antagonist causes vasoconstriction. ET-1 plasma levels are elevated in CHF and correlate both with the hemodynamic severity and with symptoms. Plasma levels of ET-1 and its precursor, big ET-1, are strong independent predictors of death in patients after myocardial infarction and with CHF. ET-1 contributes to increased systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance, vascular dysfunction, myocardial ischemia, and renal impairment in CHF. Selective ET(A) as well as combined ET(A/B) receptor antagonists have been studied in patients with CHF showing impressive hemodynamic improvements (i.e. reduced peripheral vascular and pulmonary resistance as well as increased cardiac output). These results indicate that ET receptor antagonists indeed have a potential to improve hemodynamics, symptoms, and potentially prognosis of CHF which still carries a high mortality.

Background: Vasopeptidase inhibition (VPI) represents a new therapeutic principle including both inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and neutral endopeptidase (NEP). The present study investigated the effect of the vasopeptidase inhibitor omapatrilat on endothelin-1 (ET-1)-mediated vascular function in salt-induced hypertension., Methods: Dahl salt-sensitive rats (n=6/group) on standard or salt-enriched (4% NaCl) chow were treated for 8 weeks with either omapatrilat (36+/-4 mg/kg/day), captopril (94+/-2 mg/kg/day) or placebo. Aortic and renal artery segments were isolated and suspended in organ chambers for isometric tension recording. Functional endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE) activity was assessed in native segments and after preincubation with omapatrilat. Furthermore, vascular ECE protein levels as well as plasma and tissue ET-1 levels were determined., Results: The increase in systolic blood pressure of salt-fed rats was prevented by omapatrilat and captopril to a comparable degree. In salt-induced hypertension, functional ECE activity (calculated as the ratio of the contraction to big ET-1 divided by the contraction to ET-1) in renal arteries (0.46+/-0.05) and in aorta (0.68+/-0.05) was reduced as compared with control animals (0.9+/-0.05 and 0.99+/-0.04, respectively; P<0.05). While omapatrilat in vitro blunted the response to big endothelin-1 (big ET-1) and diminished ECE activity further (P<0.01 vs native segments), chronic treatment with omapatrilat in vivo restored contractions to ET-1 (120+/-6%) and big ET-1 (98+/-9%) in renal arteries, and therefore normalized renovascular ECE activity. In addition, omapatrilat normalized plasma ET-1 concentrations (12.9+/-1.2 vs 16.6+/-1.4 pg/ml on high salt diet; P<0.05) and renovascular ECE protein levels., Conclusions: In salt-induced hypertension, vasopeptidase inhibition restores alterations in the endothelin system, such as renovascular ECE activity and responsiveness to ET-1 and big ET-1 with chronic but not acute in vitro application. Thus, the beneficial effects of vasopeptidase inhibition may reflect a resetting of cardiovascular control systems and therefore may be particularly suited to treat hypertension and heart failure.

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is characterized by impaired left ventricular function, increased peripheral and pulmonary vascular resistance and reduced exercise tolerance and dyspnea. Thus, mediators involved in the control of myocardial function and vascular tone may be involved in its pathophysiology. The family of endothelins (ET) consists of four closely related peptides, ET-1, ET-2, ET-3 and ET-4, which cause vasoconstriction, cell proliferation and myocardial effects through activation of ETA receptors. In contrast, endothelial ETB receptors mediate vasodilation via release of nitric oxide and prostacyclin. In addition, ETB receptors in the lung are a major pathway for the clearance of ET-1 from plasma. Thus, infusion of an ETA-receptor antagonist into the brachial artery in healthy humans leads to vasodilation, whereas infusion of an ETB-receptor antagonist causes vasoconstriction. Endothelin-1 plasma levels are elevated in CHF and correlate both with hemodynamic severity and symptoms. Plasma levels of ET-1 and its precursor, big ET-1, are strong independent predictors of death after myocardial infarction as well as in CHF. Endothelin-1 contributes to increased systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance, vascular dysfunction, myocardial ischemia and renal impairment in CHF. Selective ETA, as well as combined ETA/B-receptor antagonists, have been studied in patients with CHF, and their use has shown impressive hemodynamic improvement (i.e., reduced peripheral vascular and pulmonary resistance as well as increased cardiac output). These results indicate that ET-receptor antagonists, indeed, have a potential to improve hemodynamics, symptoms and, potentially, prognosis in patients with CHF, which still carries a high mortality.

Nitric oxide (NO) induces vasodilatatory, antiaggregatory, and antiproliferative effects in vitro. To delineate potential beneficial effects of NO in preventing vascular disease in vivo, we generated transgenic mice overexpressing human erythropoietin. These animals induce polyglobulia known to be associated with a high incidence of vascular disease. Despite hematocrit levels of 80%, adult transgenic mice did not develop hypertension or thromboembolism. Endothelial NO synthase levels, NO-mediated endothelium-dependent relaxation and circulating and vascular tissue NO levels were markedly increased. Administration of the NO synthase inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) led to vasoconstriction of peripheral resistance vessels, hypertension, and death of transgenic mice, whereas wild-type siblings developed hypertension but did not show increased mortality. L-NAME-treated polyglobulic mice revealed acute left ventricular dilatation and vascular engorgement associated with pulmonary congestion and hemorrhage. In conclusion, we here unequivocally demonstrate that endothelial NO maintains normotension, prevents cardiovascular dysfunction, and critically determines survival in vivo under conditions of increased hematocrit.

An increasing body of evidence indicates that impairment of endothelial function is crucially involved in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease. Injury to the endothelium precipitates atherosclerosis by causing smooth-muscle cell migration and proliferation, induction of expression of growth factors, and impairment of plasma coagulation and endogenous fibrinolysis. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and calcium antagonists are widely used in patients with cardiovascular disease and have beneficial vascular effects beyond blood pressure control alone. Both exhibit a synergistic hemodynamic profile. Whereas calcium antagonists dilate large conduit and resistance arteries, ACE inhibitors inhibit the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and reduce sympathetic outflow. Certain calcium antagonists, such as verapamil and diltiazem, reduce heart rate, whereas dihydropyridines tend to increase it. In the blood vessel wall, the local vascular effects of ACE inhibitors and calcium antagonists are complementary. ACE inhibitors diminish transformation of angiotensin I (Ang I) into angiotensin II (Ang II) and prevent degradation of bradykinin [which stimulates nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin formation]. Calcium antagonists inhibit the effects of Ang I and endothelin-1 (ET-1) at the level of vascular smooth muscle by reducing Ca2+ inflow and facilitating the vasodilator effects of NO. The resistance circulation is particularly dependent on extracellular Ca2+, thereby explaining why nifedipine and verapamil effectively inhibit ET-induced vasoconstriction in vitro and in vivo. In hypertension, ACE inhibitors and calcium antagonists markedly improve structural changes and increase the media/lumen ratio in resistance arteries. Long-term combination therapy with verapamil and trandolapril is particularly effective in reversing endothelial dysfunction in hypertensive animals. ACE inhibitors substantially reduce morbidity and mortality in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction (MI). There is a strong trend indicating benefit with verapamil as well, but this is confined to patients with a normal left ventricular ejection fraction. Clinical studies have confirmed that calcium antagonists exhibit antiatherogenic properties. However, the clinical relevance of these findings has recently been disputed because short-acting dihydropyridines are reported to increase risk for MI. Because ACE inhibitors and calcium antagonists exhibit synergistic hemodynamic, antiproliferative, antithrombotic, and antiatherogenic properties, combination therapy provides a promising concept in patients with cardiovascular and renal disease.

Coronary artery disease and its sequelae remain the most important cause of morbidity and mortality in Western countries. Because the pathophysiologic characteristics of coronary artery disease are multifactorial, impairment of endothelial function featuring enhanced vasoconstriction, increased platelet vessel wall interaction, adherence of monocytes, migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells are crucially involved. Endothelial cells release numerous vasoactive substances regulating function of vascular smooth muscle and trafficking blood cells such as nitric oxide (NO), which is a potent vasodilator also inhibiting cellular growth and migration. In addition, NO possesses antiatherogenic and thromboresistant properties by preventing platelet aggregation and cell adhesion. These effects are counterbalanced by endothelial vasoconstrictors such as angiotensin II and endothelin-1. In the blood vessel wall, the local vascular effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and calcium antagonists are synergistic. ACE inhibitors diminish the conversion of angiotensin I into angiotensin II and the inactivation of bradykinin. Calcium antagonists counteract angiotensin II and endothelin-1 at the level of vascular smooth muscle by reducing Ca2+ inflow and facilitating the vasodilator effects of NO. In hypertensive animals, long-term combination therapy with verapamil and trandolapril is particularly effective in reversing endothelial dysfunction. Further, ACE inhibitors and calcium antagonists exert beneficial vascular and complementary hemodynamic effects. Whereas ACE inhibitors inhibit the renin-angiotensin system and reduce sympathetic outflow, calcium antagonists dilate large conduit and resistance arteries. Because small vessels appear to be more dependent on extracellular Ca2+ than larger vessels, nifedipine and verapamil effectively inhibit endothelin-induced vasoconstriction in vitro and in vivo in the resistance circulation. Long-term treatment with ACE inhibitors substantially reduces morbidity and mortality rates in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction; beneficial effects of verapamil in secondary prevention are confined to patients with normal left ventricular ejection fraction. In summary, long-term combination therapy of ACE inhibitors and calcium antagonists might provide beneficial effects in cardiovascular disease because they exert synergistic hemodynamic, antiproliferative, antithrombotic, and antiatherogenic properties.

An increasing body of evidence indicates that the endothelium is crucially involved in the regulation of coronary blood flow and cardiac function. Injury to the endothelium precipitates atherosclerosis by leading to smooth-muscle-cell migration and proliferation, induction of expression of growth factors and impairment in the plasmatic coagulation and endogenous fibrinolysis system. Strategically located between the circulating blood and the vascular smooth muscle, endothelial cells release numerous vasoactive substances regulating the function of vascular smooth muscle and trafficking blood cells. Important endothelium-derived vasodilators are prostacyclin, bradykinin, nitric oxide and, independent of the former, endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor. In particular, nitric oxide inhibits cellular growth and migration. In concert with prostacyclin, nitric oxide exerts potent antiatherogenic and thromboresistant properties by preventing platelet aggregation and cell adhesion. These effects are counterbalanced by endothelial vasoconstrictors, such as angiotensin II and endothelin-1, both of which exert prothrombotic and growth-promoting properties. Modern therapeutic strategies in coronary artery disease focus on preserving or restoring endothelial integrity. Whereas nitrates partly substitute deficient endogenous nitric oxide, calcium antagonists counteract angiotensin II and endothelin-1 at the level of vascular smooth muscle by reducing Ca2+ inflow and facilitating the vasodilator effects of nitric oxide. Beyond inhibiting the renin-angiotensin system, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors diminish the inactivation of bradykinin, thus leading to an augmentation of nitric oxide release. Furthermore, newly developed specific endothelin antagonists will provide us with greater insight into the beneficial effects of restoring endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular disease. Thus, drugs can directly affect endothelial function, prevent the action of endothelial mediators, substitute for deficient endothelial factors or indirectly exert protective effects by interfering with cardiovascular risk factors.