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BRAC (formerly Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee), the largest Indigenous nongovernmental organization in the world, has a unique teacher training program in rural Bangladesh. Almost all BRAC teacher-trainees are rural women, who must have completed at least 9 years of schooling. Trainees spend only 12 days in initial basic teacher training before commencing their teaching duties in a first-grade, multi-age classroom. With monthly refresher courses and continuous close supervision by BRAC education program field staff, these paraprofessionals deliver a primary education that has been found to equal or surpass the education provided by the formal government-funded primary system. In 1999, the program operated more than 35,000 schools in over one quarter of Bangladeshi villages, serving the poorest rural children untouched by the formal system. This paper describes program elements in detail, compares them to features of the government system, and suggests possible reasons for BRAC's success. The elements described include: teacher characteristics and selection, initial basic training, school orientation for new teachers, monthly refresher training, "batch" teachers (local teachers who help facilitate monthly training sessions), workshops and ongoing training, organization of BRAC classrooms, "program organizers" (frontline teacher support staff), and senior support staff (managerial and pedagogical). Compared to government teachers, BRAC teachers have less formal education, but their training offers much more practical exposure and they are better supervised. (SV)

A study examined welfare reform and food security issues. Interviews were conducted with 32 rural Louisiana women in 1997-98 when they were receiving welfare payments, in 1998-99 when they were in transition, and in 2000-01 when none received Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). Most women were African-American; about half had not completed high school or a GED. Most women received food stamps, and all households with children relied on free breakfast and lunch programs at their children's schools. The overwhelming majority of study participants had poor diets, despite the fact that few reported food insecurity or hunger. They ate primarily fried foods, fat meats, and large quantities of food--when food was available. About 62 percent of participants were overweight or obese. Nutrition-related chronic diseases, like Type 2 diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease, and hypertension disproportionally affect low-income women, and obesity is often a co-morbid condition. A policy change like the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 that makes even a temporary reduction in household income can have negative effects on food security. The women's lack of health care coverage will loom large as their health history, poor nutrition, lack of nutrition education, and environmental stressors undermine their long-term physical well-being. The "food safety net" must be protected so that not only food security, but healthy eating, gives low-resource families and children the best possible chance for self-sufficiency on all levels. (Contains 17 references.) (TD)

Central Queensland University's Women into Science and Technology program aimed to broaden the access of women to higher education, improve their career opportunities and employment prospects, and address the personnel shortage in engineering and technology by encouraging mature age women to consider these fields. The distance learning program was designed to give open access to all women regardless of their background. No prerequisites or educational standards are required. The subjects have been designed to bridge the gap between the student's knowledge level and grade 12, thus meeting the requirements of entry into most university courses. Age is no barrier, students can enroll at any time of the year, the course is not tied to any semester system, and the women can work at their own pace. Fees and academic support costs have been kept to a minimum. Government funding is available to qualified students, but some funding time limits interfere with the course being self-paced. Rural Queensland is conservative concerning gender roles. A woman returning to study faces guilt at moving outside the traditional role of domestic manager and derogatory remarks from community and family. One of the early study skills courses also develops self-esteem, and women are further supported through a contact list of other students in their area, a newsletter, and visits by the course coordinator. (TD)

A study examined the impact of the rural context upon the career patterns of women educational administrators in rural public school divisions in Saskatchewan, Canada. Surveys were completed by 107 female administrators who served rural schools in Saskatchewan, and 24 female administrators were interviewed. Findings indicate that women administrators in depressed communities tended to be younger than in booming and stable communities. Female representation in educational administration was strongest at the school level. The attractions for female administrators were higher but the opportunities were lower in booming communities than in stable or depressed communities. Female administrators from booming communities did not feel the pressure to live in the community as highly as female administrators in depressed and stable communities. The attitude that "it has always been done this way" affected school accomplishments more in depressed and stable communities than in booming communities. Women in booming communities faced more career barriers than women in stable or depressed communities, but for the majority of respondents, gender was no longer perceived as a significant barrier to administration. The majority of women administrators in rural Saskatchewan were finding success. Regularities in the career patterns of rural female administrators were related to the nature of the communities of which they were a part. The personal views of female administrators matched the perceived views of their particular community. Implications for theory, practice, and research are discussed. Six appendices present demographics, survey results, and maps. (Contains 26 references.) (TD)

Family connections, traditional activities, educational goals, and fatalism are themes running throughout research and published observations about Appalachia. Information from 3 days of interviews with the author's grandmother, an 87-year-old Appalachian woman, is compared to these common research themes. The interviewee's experiences concerning family connections were consistent with the literature in that they revealed strong family ties and a marriage to a mentally and physically abusive man who kept her isolated at home. Traditional activities such as farming, canning, and quilting were all strongly present in the interviewee's life, which corresponded with findings in the literature. Much of the literature regarding Appalachian beliefs about education portrays Appalachians as being less interested in education, with many considering formal education as a substitute for hard work. Higher education, especially for women, is discouraged. The author's grandmother did not have those experiences. She graduated high in her class and intended to attend college, but finances prevented it. At age 67, she took a few college classes. The fatalism reported in research was not a dominant theme in the interviews, but threads of resignation were detected toward the hardships she endured. While the grandmother's life mirrored many of the research themes, her strength, dignity, and courage overshadowed their negativity. (Contains 20 references.) (TD)

The Girls' Resiliency Program is a youth empowerment program for girls in a rural, economically depressed area of West Virginia. Girls develop leadership skills by participating in board meetings, discussion groups, recreational events, song writing and poetry workshops, action research, and school and community service projects. Evaluation research conducted during summer and fall 2000 focused on girls' experiences with the action research summer projects and personal relations girls experienced in the program. Two staff members were participant observers in the application process, training sessions, working meetings of the girls' action research teams, and a meeting of the applied communications class, and they interviewed the nine girls who participated in the summer research project. Findings indicate that the girls learned the importance of persistence, hard work, and responsibility and the joy of work that is personally rewarding. They also learned a lot about the problems they studied and how that knowledge could be helpful to them individually and to the broader community. The adults learned that a major factor in program success was the close, respectful personal relationships among the participating girls and women. Forming such relationships between women and girls was not always easy. It required a delicate balance between coaching that pushes too hard, and coaching that coddles too much, demanding too little of individuals who learn to perform to lower expectations. (TD)

The purpose of this qualitative, historical study was to investigate the impact of the Arts and Crafts Movement, the Settlement Movement, and the Progressive Education Movement on the handiwork at Hindman Settlement School (formerly W.C.T.U. Settlement School, 1902-1910) located in the eastern Kentucky Appalachian Mountain region. Three themes emerged from the data: the social dimension in handiwork, social production of the handiwork, and innovative educational practices. The Hindman Settlement School, still in operation today, was respected for its academics, handiwork, and response to the region's educational needs. It was influenced by innovative education reforms of Jane Addams and John Dewey. (Contains 27 references.)(AUTH)

Low-income women, ages 18 to 59, attending basic adult education classes (DHS group) or community college development classes (DEV group) in rural East Tennessee, completed questionnaires examining their occupational possible selves and their locus of control. The two groups were compared as to their number of hoped-for and feared occupational selves; affective intensity and perceived likelihood of their most hoped-for self and their most feared self; presence of a role model for their most hoped-for self; self-initiated actions taken to achieve their most hoped-for self and avoid their most feared self; and their Spheres of Control scores. No significant differences existed between the groups in the number of hoped-for and feared selves generated nor in the total number of role models reported. Both groups reported more role models for feared selves than for hoped-for selves. Affective intensity for the most hoped-for self was significantly higher for the DEV group. No significant differences were found in affective intensity for feared selves. Both groups assessed likelihood of their most hoped-for selves higher than likelihood of their most feared selves, but the DEV group expressed significantly greater likelihood of achieving their most hoped-for self. Internal locus of control was a significant predictor of likelihood of the most hoped-for self, but there were no significant predictors of likelihood of the most feared self. Implications for professionals working with low-income women are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 30 references.) (Author/SLD)

This paper documents changing rates of poverty, sources of income, and employment among rural female-headed families with children, focusing on the effects of welfare reform. Data from the Current Population Survey show that from 1989 through 1999, especially since passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) of 1996, rural poverty rates have declined among female-headed families and their children. Rates of welfare receipt also have dropped dramatically, and labor force participation has increased along with average earnings. Moreover, the income of all rural female-headed families with children increased on average over the past few years. The data also tell of persistent rural-urban inequality. More than 4 in 10 rural female-headed families were poor, and about half of these had income that was less than half of the poverty income threshold. This happened even though the share of rural female heads who were employed grew and average earnings rose. The problem today is that one-third of working rural female heads are in poverty, a rate higher than at any time during the period examined. Moreover, the rise in the proportion of rural female heads with earnings has not kept pace with the large decrease since the passage of PRWORA in the proportion with welfare income. Neither unbridled optimism nor pessimism about future trends in rural poverty is warranted, especially as the "hardest cases" and other nonworking welfare-dependent mothers run up against time limits for welfare receipt. (Contains 73 references and 12 tables.) (Author/TD)

Over the past century, rural girls and women have increasingly taken on leadership roles in response to rural community development concerns and farm crises threatening the very existence of family farms and surrounding communities. This paper provides a brief historical overview of the status of women in rural Canada, and then describes the participation of girls and women in contemporary rural communities, with a focus on farming communities in southwestern Ontario. Case studies of rural girls' and women's involvement in 4-H clubs, Women's Institutes, Ontario Agri-Food Education Inc., and Women in Rural Economic Development (WRED) are included, with particular emphasis on the impact of WRED on the lives of rural women and their communities. WRED provides rural women with education, information, networking opportunities, and financial resources to begin and maintain small businesses. WRED strategies were tailored to meet rural women's issues, such as isolation, lack of formal education, and need for flexibility and child care. Many women in WRED are also active in Women's Institutes, hold leadership positions in local 4-H clubs, and participate in Agriculture in the Classroom programs in both rural and urban schools. They are trying not only to maintain their own rural communities and identities, but also to educate youth and urban dwellers about the important role of agriculture in all our lives. (Contains 43 references.) (TD)

This presentation examines the history of women teachers in the rural United States. The earliest classrooms in America were a male environment modeled after European schools. But in the mid-19th century, the Civil War and westward expansion depleted the number of male teachers and brought rural women teachers to the helm of American education. Emma Willard, Mary Lyon, and Catherine Beecher established training programs and served as role models for the first trained women teachers. Mass recruitments of teachers were responsible for placing women teachers in Western frontier schools, southern schools for freed slaves, and missionary schools for American Indians. Women answered these calls, drawn by the promise of adventure, economic stability, independence, marriage opportunities, or the chance to do God's work. Immigrant mothers established schools for their children on the frontier and thereby maintained their language and culture. The demand for teachers continued in the late 1800s as legislation in many states required a school within 4 miles walking distance of every student. In the late 1880s, 90 percent of rural teaching positions were held by women. In the early 1900s, girls outnumbered boys in rural schools as boys were needed on the farm or were otherwise encouraged to work. Many women teachers were dismissed during the depression of the 1930s but were rehired during World War II. Anecdotes about specific rural women teachers are included. (SV)

A study explored how rural women in the village of Srefultoli, Bangladesh describe, from their own point of view, their experiences with nonformal education (NFE). Feminist research has shown that existing NFE programs in developing countries give women traditional knowledge of family planning, nutrition, and health care, but they do not deal with the need to increase women's awareness of their oppression and exploitation. The study examined whether current NFE programs in this village in Bangladesh give women new knowledge about their current situation in society and in the family and whether these women are conscious of their strategic and practical needs. A social mapping methodology was used to pattern these women's perspectives, and the map serves as a conventional symbol for the "way things are," or perceptions of truth. Findings suggest that rural Bangladeshi women are aware of their socio-economic and political subordination and that they use multiple strategies to resist patriarchal domination. Most of the women see participation in NFE programs as an empowering process. Findings also suggest that rural women wanted NFE programs to provide increased opportunities for income generation, for better access to education, for training to help them become economically independent, and for the conscientization of men, so these other objectives may flourish. These women also had specific suggestions regarding the class time, course design, and courses for men that would enhance female participation and would introduce some changes in men's and women's relationships. Conclusions were that certain more participatory NFE programs may bring meaningful changes in women's lives, and that rural women themselves can best identify their own needs. (Contains 5 figures and 43 references.) (Author/BT)

A study examining child care services in rural and remote areas conducted focus group interviews and distributed questionnaires to parents living in 15 towns in the Mallee region of Western Victoria (Australia). Barriers to accessing child care in rural areas included limited availability of formal services, costs, stereotypes associated with life in rural areas, and government cutbacks of funding for child care. Interviews also addressed the associated loss of social power for rural families, especially women, resulting from lack of child care services. Results dispelled several myths, including the notion that all rural individuals have access to networks of family and friends, and established that rural parents want child care for the same reasons as their urban counterparts: peer/social interaction and educational opportunities for their children, time out for themselves, and availability of emergency or occasional care when needed. Recommendations for enhancing rural child care services focus on increased government funding, petrol subsidies, a relaxation of some current health and safety regulations, incentives for mobile programs, expanding parents' awareness of services, the development of parent networks, and the enhancement of existing support systems. (Contains 16 references.) (TD)

A study investigated the impact of declining rural community infrastructure on social, environmental, and economic well-being in Western Australia's central wheatbelt. Questionnaires were completed by 398 residents of the central wheatbelt, on-farm interviews were conducted with 68 respondents, and 4 focus groups were held in area towns. Respondents reported that while farm income increased during the previous 10 years, disposable income decreased. Few respondents were confident that their children would live close by in adulthood due to lack of work opportunities. General health services were a concern, but participants were prepared to live with the current service provided it was not further reduced. However, mental health was a recurring issue, with many indicating that mental health issues encompassed unresolved family issues and sustained stress and were having a direct impact on the economic viability of some enterprises. Lack of telecommunications service and loss of banking and postal services contributed to a business drain from small communities. The reduction of social services especially affected women, who were leaving because of isolation and limited support. Declining enrollment threatened the survival of some schools. In addition, many parents reported that they would move or send their children away if good education was not locally available, thus further impacting enrollment. The rural voting population is not large enough to persuade politicians to subsidize rural infrastructure, so the rationalization trend will likely continue. Withdrawal of infrastructure and services based exclusively on economic reasons does not consider human or environmental implications. A national holistic plan that acknowledges human needs and social equity should be implemented. (Contains 62 references and the survey questionnaire.) (TD)

New Horizons is a nonschool program that demystifies and communicates essential information on basic life skills and reproductive health to Egyptian girls and young women aged 9-20. The program consists of 100 hour-long sessions, each including an introduction to a specific topic, review of group knowledge level, discussion around key points displayed on a poster, assessment, and follow-up activity. Topic categories are identity, rights and responsibilities, nutrition, health, first aid, child development, environment, small business projects, and for those over age 12, adolescence, violence against women, marriage, pregnancy, family planning, and sexually transmitted diseases. The program was developed in three upper Egyptian rural governates with low female education and literacy. A diverse group of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) assembled a team of fieldworkers who identified rural girls' problems and needs, chose 17 topics as the foundation of program materials, trained local volunteer facilitators, and evaluated early field tests. Notable program features include a comprehensive assortment of topics, an integrated approach to working with rural parents and communities, cultural and social sensitivity, simple manuals for facilitators, and replicability. Over 100 New Horizons Girls' Learning Centers now operate in four governates. Positive program impacts include changing traditional harmful practices and attitudes, building girls' confidence and status, creating demand for literacy and education, and encouraging girls to share new ideas within the family. Appendices list NGO program developers, program topics, and a chronology of program development. (SV)

The Allama Iqbal Open University of Pakistan started the Women's Secondary Education Project through distance learning in 1986. It was designed to meet the educational needs of rural women who are denied access to the formal education system because of social and economic constraints. The distance education method suited these women because by studying at home they were able to combine their education with domestic duties. The course consists of self-study course books, supplemented with audiocassette materials, a study guide, and radio and television courses. Once a week, students go to a local study center for tutoring. Many of the courses are of a functional nature and include various vocational skills. The certificate awarded is equivalent to those awarded by the Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education in Pakistan. The program has been very popular; 3,000 students have completed the program, and approximately 6,000 are foreseen for upcoming enrollment. This group of women will have tremendous impact on the development of society as a whole. Graduates have become teachers, health workers, social workers, and skilled women able to contribute financially to their families. They have gained confidence, self-esteem, and financial independence. Parents, husbands, brothers, in-laws, local communities, and religious leaders have all recognized the quality of the program. The program was expanded first to include urban women and most recently to include males. An appendix lists courses offered. Six data tables outline distance-education advantages and program outcomes. (Contains 10 references.) (TD)

Research aimed to enhance rural women's access to communication and information technologies and to assess the impact of their technology use on their participation in small business development and community development. Over 200 women throughout Queensland (Australia) were involved. A trial electronic mailing list linking rural women to urban women and women in other countries quickly expanded into a vibrant online community because it addressed the social isolation of women in rural and remote situations. Gender was a significant factor in the development of this online community due to women's use of communication for kinship, friendship, and community maintenance as well as stress management. The development of networks between women in government, industry, academic contexts, and rural communities empowered participants and enhanced community development processes. Gender was a factor here as well, due to women's holistic perspectives on community development and to the high value women place on connectivity, which resulted in contentious issues being introduced with care and respect. Because of their diverse social and productive roles in rural communities and by virtue of their communication skills, women are emerging as innovators and managers of change. It is therefore important that they have access to new technologies and appropriate training. This research revealed the need for the integration of social infrastructure with economic concerns in community development. (Contains 18 references.) (TD)

Research aimed at recognizing, encouraging, enhancing, and harnessing the skills and contributions of women in the Australian grains industry involved a number of women in Victoria in focus groups, telephone interviews, and questionnaire surveys. Results indicate that women perceived themselves as providing guidance, operational assistance, planning, health and safety functions, enterprise activities, and reliability to farm operations, and that they were available 24 hours a day. Two role categories were identified, traditional and contemporary. Women in the grains industry were generally highly educated, contributing business and administration skills, assisting in manual farm operations, earning off-farm income, and caring for the family. Women undervalued their skills and contributions and lacked the confidence and skills to be more involved. The majority of women expressed either a lack of interest in being involved or a lack of belief in their ability to impact on the agripolitical area. Approximately 27 percent of these women wanted something better and had the capabilities and determination to achieve it. Attracting these women to greater involvement in the grains industry will require, at the industry level, recognizing their capabilities; valuing their input; providing training, support such as mentors and role models, a professional work environment, and accessible, affordable childcare; and raising the profile of farming. (TD)

Many women find the modern nuclear family confining and oppressive, and seek liberation. Moving ahead to the postmodern family, as feminists advocate, is not the only path. Back-to-the-landers find fulfillment in the interdependent premodern family model. Surveys and interviews of over 2,000 back-to-the-landers over a period of 15 years are used to explore female independence and sense of fulfillment within a movement that attempts to recapture part of an idyllic past while still captive to modern notions of gender equity and deference. The average respondent was 47 and well educated, had been married 15 years, and had two children. Results show a clear division of labor along gender lines, yet perceived and apparent inequity in the division of labor does not affect satisfaction with partner or other quality of life factors (general happiness and general satisfaction) for back-to-the-landers, particularly females. While the spiritual nature of back-to-the-land living and a sense of freedom (leisure) do not explain variance in satisfaction with a partner relationship, these two dimensions of back-to-country life do account for considerable variance in general happiness and general satisfaction, indicating that they may function as compensating factors for female smallholders. A discussion of the "social glue" that holds families together, and the link between family sustainability and planetary sustainability suggests that the best option may be to go back, in order to move ahead. Survey results are presented in four tables and an appendix. Contains endnotes. (TD)

With the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia was severed from its exterior financial and technical support. The dramatic shift in socioeconomic conditions created a need for new forms of adult education. The nomadic women of the Gobi Desert were targeted as most at risk, and the Gobi Women's Project conducted a needs assessment in three of the six Gobi provinces. Women defined their own most urgent learning needs in the areas of livestock rearing, family care and health, literacy, income generation using locally available materials, and basic business skills. By 1996, 15,000 nomadic women were taking part in education activities offered through radio, printed materials, and visiting teachers. This booklet describes Mongolia's educational conditions and the Gobi Women's Project, with sections covering the history and culture of Mongolia; the abrupt economic change from Communism to an independent market economy; women's status, education, and literacy; low-cost forms of distance education; initial planning and development of the project; enthusiastic grassroots response; development and dissemination of instructional materials; organizational structure of the project; educational delivery through reading materials, radio programs, visiting teachers, information centers, and learning groups; experiences of five students and teachers; project achievements (empowering rural women and breaking new ground); financing; sustainability; and future directions. Includes facts about Mongolia, a glossary, a list of project innovations, photographs, and a bibliography. (SV)

The Country Women's Association (CWA) is a nationwide Australian group that started in the 1920s in response to isolated women's need to socialize. The group's activities have expanded greatly over time. It distributes essential food and clothing to needy rural families, and its extensive involvement in incidental education for women includes cultural pursuits such as drama, choirs, floral art, and handicrafts. CWA uses its network to disseminate craft training, teaching a woman from each district at a central school each year, who then teaches members in her own area. Outreach teams go to the Pacific Islands or Aboriginal lands, at the invitation of the women themselves, to expand women's abilities and horizons. The usual requests are for sewing, basic hygiene, and cooking skills. Members are trained in conducting formal meetings, parliamentary procedure, accounting and record keeping, leadership skills, reporting, and publicity and public speaking. CWA is active in state and national politics. The nonsectarian, nonpartisan nature of the group has helped it gain credibility, and its lobbying efforts have been quite successful, especially in areas of youth, health, infrastructure, and rural education. Each year the group studies a different country as an international project, encouraging members to expand their horizons. Community education is carried out through annual projects called state objectives. A subject, such as cystic fibrosis, is chosen from nominations around the state and becomes the fundraising focus for the year. CWA also administers a scholarship for young people who need financial assistance in continuing their education or for mature women who are retraining. (TD)

A study to examine literacy programs for women in rural villages in India interviewed all program directors and staff and some women involved in nongovernmental (NGO) projects in the Pune area. NGO officials were universally disenchanted with government programs. NGOs' goals varied from preschool education in the villages to agricultural reform to entrepreneurial projects for women. All NGOs had improvement of the state of women mentioned prominently in their goals. Upper caste Brahmin ran NGOs, whereas the village women were lower caste or tribal women. All of the literacy programs were run with a top-down management style. The attitudes toward the lower caste women varied from respect to outright "paternalism" and influenced the type of work for which they were trained. Two NGOs trained women to become maids or make handicrafts. Conversations with the women in one village showed they were vitally concerned with literacy as a way to help their children have a future, but they were more fatalistic about chances to improve their own lives. Only two of the six NGOs had active literacy programs where women were instructed in educational skills necessary to accomplish a stated self-sufficiency goal. The most successful program, in terms of the difference it made in women's lives, was the Vanashthali Rural Development Project operating in 17 villages that offered 6-month preschool training courses to young village women. (An appendix highlights goals and effectiveness of the six projects.) (YLB)

Exposure to industrialization, urbanization, and commercial activities in the past 45 years has improved attitudes towards women in Pakistan, but they are still considered subordinate to men and the property of parents or husband. Traditional social values do not allow women full integration and participation in social and economic activities. Seclusion of women, dictated by religion, is a main reason why females are less educated. Socioeconomic, cultural, and social practices cause various types of communication gaps that hinder education in general, and women's education in particular: communication gaps between teacher and students, between parents and students, between genders, and between traditional and nontraditional environments. After a discussion of each of these, various goals of education are identified and explained: cultural, social, individual, and international. Suggestions for achieving these goals include reshaping the education system to respond to rapidly changing socioeconomic and cultural demands; providing equal education and job opportunities for women; training students to develop a new integrated society through ideological and social uplift programs; emphasizing science and vocational education; reducing the number of students in class; implementing teacher refresher courses; providing financial assistance; improving the status of women; and utilizing distance education. (TD)

In rural Pakistan, agricultural land is owned by men and they use family labor, including women. Women usually transact no cash from cradle to grave. There is no social support for high achievement in their lives. The illiteracy rate among women is very high, especially in rural areas, where only 7.3 percent of women are literate. Poor underachieving women with only basic education show poor linguistic ability, feelings of rejection, emotional insecurity, poor motivation, and difficulty in adjustment and absorption in society. Some studies report girls have a higher level of achievement motivation than boys but lack opportunities. Sindh Rural Women's Uplift Group engaged 10-15 women on a farm, paid them the same salaries as men, and gave them similar jobs to perform. After 2 years, results show that the women's output exceeded the men's, and the life pattern of the women has changed. Initially, men took their salaries, but the women asserted themselves and are now better clothed and want to send their children to school. The men are becoming more considerate. The educational system needs to be reshaped to respond to rapidly changing socioeconomic and cultural demands, with emphasis on equal education, remedial education, and vocational education. Distance education is a useful way to address the facts that women are kept in seclusion within the boundary walls of the home, coeducation is not allowed, educational facilities are limited in rural areas, and free time is limited. (TD)

Begun in the early 1990s, The Skills-Based Literacy Programme for Women aims to improve the lives of rural Chinese women by linking literacy education with skills training in agriculture and other forms of income generation. Xuan Wei County, Yunnan Province, was chosen as the seat of the project because of high female illiteracy rates and the need for improved agricultural skills to cope with the area's rugged terrain. Before the program, women accustomed to low status and endless labor did not see literacy as relevant to their lives, and men objected to their wives and daughters taking time from their work to attend classes. Project organizers and the All China Women's Federation carried out publicity campaigns to gain community support for women's education. Relevant instructional materials were produced within the regional context to show how women's economic self-reliance, self-confidence, self-respect, self-improvement, and status within society would be enhanced under four conditions: realistic portrayal of women's actual condition and double responsibilities as housekeepers and economic producers; provision of locally relevant knowledge skills to improve women's economic productivity; realization that this improved productivity would affect the balance of power between men and women, making it more equitable; and the lessening of women's domestic workload. Project evaluations and outcomes are discussed. A final section describes the program's philosophy of empowerment, the All China Women's Federation, and the "Sisters of a Thousand Yuan" award for successful women. (Contains photographs.) (SV)

This paper examines the gender order that operates in rural areas of Australia, ensuring that women are accorded secondary status, that their contributions are discounted, and that their concerns are trivialized. Women are disadvantaged by patriarchal gender relations that dominate rural society and that are reinforced by ideologies of family and "wifehood" holding women accountable for domestic household labor. Interviews with 64 farm women in New South Wales revealed the large economic contributions of farm women in the areas of unpaid domestic work, unpaid farm labor, volunteer work in rural communities and schools, and paid off-farm employment. Yet, these extensive contributions are often negated, depicted as merely "helping out." Women are also seriously affected by the fact that rural society is disintegrating in many areas. Rural communities are becoming depopulated, rural services are closing, employment opportunities are contracting, and the standard of living is reduced. In such an environment, there is great pressure on women to work harder in all areas of their lives. Major issues and concerns for rural women include the scarcity of employment opportunities, lack of child care, loss of health care services and other community services, stresses on mental and physical health, need for increased access to continuing education, worries about the use of chemicals in agriculture, and inadequacy of the social security system for farm families. A number of strategies are suggested to address the concerns of rural women. (SV)

This booklet describes the origin of Saptagram, a grassroots organization in Bangladesh and its development into a movement to empower deprived, landless women. The organization was founded in 1976 by a woman history professor, and one of its most original features is a gender-oriented syllabus. The booklet's introduction outlines the aims of the organization, which focuses on making poor rural women socioeconomically self-reliant. The subsequent chapters discuss different aspects of the movement, such as: (1) tackling gender disparities; (2) using the group approach to confront problems; (3) demystifying the lives of women; (4) involving women in economic activities; (5) adopting sericulture (silkworm production) as a comprehensive income-generating project; (6) focusing on preventive health care; (7) designing a female-oriented literacy program; (8) recruiting teachers; (9) including women at all levels of the organization; (10) recruiting suitable field staff; (11) encouraging self-sufficiency; and (12) securing sources of funding. The impact of the movement on women, and the challenges and perspectives for the organization's future are also discussed. In addition, four features are included that describe the basic economic indicators of Bangladesh, examples of social action taken by groups of women, a story used in the adult education course, and a day in the life of a Saptagram member. Contains a 14-item bibliography. (BAC)

In 1979, the Indian Institute of Education launched the country's first comprehensive project in part-time, non-formal primary education. Now in its third phase, PROPEL (Promoting Primary and Elementary Education Project) is training the inhabitants of 137 villages to take responsibility for the quality of education in the non-formal stream. This booklet describes the PROPEL project, illustrating how a decentralized model of primary education can succeed. The introductory chapter describes the development of the project as a holistic model of rural development embracing early childhood care, women's groups, adult literacy, post-literacy learning, and teacher training. The first chapter discusses India's educational challenge and the barriers to universal primary education among children from disadvantaged groups. Various features related to the project are discussed in the remaining chapters. They are as follows: (1) the action-research approach; (2) understanding the needs of the local community; (3) formation of non-formal education centers; (4) developing learning and teaching strategies in the classrooms; (5) developing a locally relevant curriculum; (6) compiling class materials with a rural orientation; (7) recruiting teachers from the villages; (8) evaluating progress; and (9) sources of funding. In addition, the booklet documents PROPEL's use of support programs such as women's development groups and village education committees to mobilize the community in favor of schooling; its success in influencing the formal primary education system; and its efforts to fight the two obstacles of poverty and early marriage. The booklet concludes by noting that the project's strength lies in reaching children, especially girls, and in training people at the grassroots level to take responsibility for education. Demographic details about India and the PROPEL project are included. (BAC)

This paper discusses initiatives of the Vietnamese government to address the educational and training needs of the working population, particularly women. Since 1986, the Vietnamese government has initiated efforts to develop a multisectoral, market-oriented economy. Education and training are considered to be essential for promoting long-term national development. Thus, the government has focused on the development of higher education and the provision of basic education to working people, especially rural women. The current population of Vietnam is 73 million, including 20 million working women between the ages of 15-55. Seventy-five percent of working women are farmers who play a major role in food production. However, Vietnamese women particularly in rural areas, face many difficulties: unemployment, underemployment, poverty, lack of knowledge and experience in a market economy, and a high rate of illiteracy. Approximately 5.6 million women are illiterate, 89 percent of whom live in rural areas. Since 1990, the government has implemented literacy programs with the goal of raising literacy rates for people aged 15-35. Follow-up literacy courses focus on functional literacy and address such issues as environmental protection, drug abuse and AIDS prevention, child rearing, small business management, and cultural preservation. In addition, job skill training and distance education have been integrated to further meet the educational and training needs of women. The government believes that the education of women will result in effective parenting skills, lowering the school dropout rate, and cultural preservation. The significant number of female teachers at all levels of education illustrates the success of the government's efforts to promote the education of women. (LP)

This monograph describes Save The Children's Non-Formal Education (NFE) Program implemented in rural Nepal. Since the formal education of females is not a cultural priority, NFE targets women and girls. Currently, 90-95 percent of participants are female, including adult women and out-of-school girls. Enhancing and increasing literacy is the primary goal of NFE, a community-based program that couples literacy with community development. Program features include materials that are relevant to women's daily lives, and the organization of women's groups for collective action. Such groups have undertaken economic development activities; devised a system of home-based rotating child care; empowered local women economically, socially, and politically; and begun activities focused on the needs of children. Program implementation has demonstrated several principles of nonformal education intervention: (1) literacy curriculum relevant to learners' lives energizes the process of learning to read; (2) program sustainability is directly connected to community initiative and program ownership; (3) effectively reaching isolated rural areas depends on local program management, training, and monitoring; (4) an integrated approach addresses community needs more effectively and holistically; (5) raising awareness and meeting raised demands should be organizational responsibilities; and (6) child care issues must be addressed. Contains 15 references. (MNL)