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A case of total vertebral artery occlusion by a cervical `hour-glass' or `dumb-bell' neurofibroma is reported. To the author's knowledge this is the first reported case in the English literature. A causal relationship between the arterial occlusion and the patient's symptoms has been postulated. The angiographic study of these patients is further emphasized to enhance safer and more effectual removal of these lesions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

DBS has been shown to be an effective intervention for neurological disorders. However, the intervention is complex and many aspects have not been understood. Various clinical situations have no solution and follow trial and error approaches. Dystonia is a movement disorder characterized by involuntary muscle contractions, which gives rise to abnormal movements and postures. Status dystonicus (SD) represents a life-threatening condition that requires urgent assessment and management. Electrophysiological markers for risk of symptom worsening and SD related patterns of evolution in patients treated with long-term deep brain stimulation (DBS), and specially under the effect of withdrawal and renewals of simulation are needed. To this end, we study the variability of neural synchronization as a mechanism for symptom generation under successive perturbations to a system, i.e. withdrawals and renewals of neuromodulation, through computational simulation of clinical profiles under different plasticity conditions. The simulation shows that the neuroplasticity makeup influences the variability of oscillation synchronization patterns in virtual "patients". The difference between the effect of different electrophysiological signatures is remarkable and under a certain condition (equal medium long term potentiation and long term depression) the situation resembles that of a stable equilibrium, putatively making the sudden worsening or change less likely. Stability of variability can only be observed in this condition and is clearly distinct from other scenarios. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that the neuroplasticity makeup affects the variability of the oscillatory synchrony. This i) informs the shaping of the electrophysiological makeup and ii) might serve as a marker for clinical behavior., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of European Paediatric Neurology Society.)

Introduction: MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) thalamotomy provides an exciting development in the field of minimally invasive stereotactic neurosurgery. Current treatment options for focal hand dystonia are limited, with potentially more effective invasive stereotactic interventions, such as deep brain stimulation or lesional therapies, rarely used. The advent of minimally invasive brain lesioning provides a potentially safe and effective treatment approach with a recent pilot study establishing MRgFUS Vo-complex thalamotomy as an effective treatment option for focal hand dystonia. In this study, we undertake an open-label clinical trial to further establish MRgFUS Vo-complex thalamotomy as an effective treatment for focal hand dystonia with greater attention paid to potential motor costs associated with this treatment. To elucidate pathophysiology of dystonia and treatment mechanisms, neurophysiological and MRI analysis will be performed longitudinally to explore the hypothesis that neuroplastic and structural changes that may underlie this treatment benefit., Methods and Analysis: A total of 10 participants will be recruited into this open-label clinical trial. All participants will undergo clinical, kinemetric, neurophysiological and radiological testing at baseline, followed by repeated measures at predesignated time points post MRgFUS Vo-complex thalamotomy. Further, to identify any underlying structural or neurophysiological abnormalities present in individuals with focal hand dystonia, 10 age and gender matched control participants will be recruited to undergo comparative investigation. These results will be compared with the intervention participants both at baseline and at 12 months to assess for normalisation of these abnormalities, if present., Ethics and Dissemination: This trial was reviewed and approved by the St Vincent's Health Network Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee (2022/ETH00778). Study results will be published in peer-reviewed journals and presented at both national and international conferences., Trial Registration Number: CTRN12622000775718., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Among neurodevelopmental disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the main cause of school failure in children. Notably, visuospatial dysfunction has also been emphasized as a leading cause of low cognitive performance in children with ADHD. Consequently, the present study aimed to identify ADHD-related changes in electroencephalography (EEG) characteristics, associated with visual object processing in school-aged children. We performed Multichannel EEG recordings in 16-year-old children undergoing Navon's visual object processing paradigm. We mapped global coherence during the processing of local and global visual stimuli that were consistent, inconsistent, or neutral. We found that Children with ADHD showed significant differences in global weighted coherence during the processing of local and global inconsistent visual stimuli and longer response times in comparison to the control group. Delta and theta EEG bands highlighted important features for classification in both groups. Thus, we advocate EEG coherence and low-frequency EEG spectral power as prospective markers of visual processing deficit in ADHD. Our results have implications for the development of diagnostic interventions in ADHD and provide a deeper understanding of the factors leading to low performance in school-aged children.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) serves as a treatment for neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), essential tremor, dystonia, Tourette Syndrome (GTS), Huntington's disease, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). There is broad experience with the short-term effects of DBS in individual diseases and their signs/symptoms. However, even in acute treatment and for the same disorder or a given disorder, a prediction of effect is not perfect. Even further, the factors that influence the long-term effect of DBS and its withdrawal are hardly characterized. In this work, we aim to shed light on an important topic, the question of "DBS dependency." To address this, we make use of the Kuramoto model of phase synchronization (oscillation feature) endowed with neuroplasticity to study the effects of DBS under successive withdrawals and renewals of neuromodulation as well as influence of treatment duration in de novo DBS "patients." The results of our simulation show that the characteristics of neuroplasticity have a profound effect on the stability and mutability of oscillation synchronization patterns across successive withdrawal and renewal of DBS in chronic "patients" and also in de novo DBS "patients" with varying duration of treatment (here referred to as the "number of iterations"). Importantly, the results demonstrate the strong effect of the individual neuroplasticity makeup on the behavior of synchrony of oscillatory activity that promotes certain disorder/disease states or symptoms. The effect of DBS-mediated neuromodulation and withdrawal is highly dependent on the makeup of the neuroplastic signature of a disorder or an individual., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Trenado, Cif, Pedroarena-Leal and Ruge.)

Motor adaptation tasks investigate our ability to adjust motor behaviors to an ever-changing and unpredictable world. Previous work has shown that punishment-based feedback delivered during a visuomotor adaptation task enhances error-reduction, whereas reward increases memory retention. While the neural underpinnings of the influence of punishment on the adaptation phase remain unclear, reward has been hypothesized to increase retention through dopaminergic mechanisms. We directly tested this hypothesis through pharmacological manipulation of the dopaminergic system. A total of 96 young healthy human participants were tested in a placebo-controlled double-blind between-subjects design in which they adapted to a 40° visuomotor rotation under reward or punishment conditions. We confirmed previous evidence that reward enhances retention, but the dopamine (DA) precursor levodopa (LD) or the DA antagonist haloperidol failed to influence performance. We reason that such a negative result could be due to experimental limitations or it may suggest that the effect of reward on motor memory retention is not driven by dopaminergic processes. This provides further insight regarding the role of motivational feedback in optimizing motor learning, and the basis for further decomposing the effect of reward on the subprocesses known to underlie motor adaptation paradigms.

Background: Status dystonicus (SD) is a life-threatening condition., Objective and Methods: In a dystonia cohort who developed status dystonicus, we analyzed demographics, background dystonia phenomenology and complexity, trajectory previous to-, via status dystonicus episodes, and evolution following them., Results: Over 20 years, 40 of 328 dystonia patients who were receiving DBS developed 58 status dystonicus episodes. Dystonia was of pediatric onset (95%), frequently complex, and had additional cognitive and pyramidal impairment (62%) and MRI alterations (82.5%); 40% of episodes occured in adults. Mean disease duration preceding status dystonicus was 10.3 ± 8 years. Evolution time to status dystonicus varied from days to weeks; however, 37.5% of patients exhibited progressive worsening over years. Overall, DBS was efficient in resolving 90% of episodes., Conclusion: Status dystonicus is potentially reversible and a result of heterogeneous conditions with nonuniform underlying physiology. Recognition of the complex phenomenology, morphological alterations, and distinct patterns of evolution, before and after status dystonicus, will help our understanding of these conditions. © 2018 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society., (© 2018 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.)

Depotentiation (DP) is a crucial mechanism for the tuning of memory traces once LTP (Long Term Potentiation) has been induced via learning, artificial procedures, or other activities. Putative unuseful LTP might be abolished via this process. Its deficiency is thought to play a role in pathologies, such as drug induced dyskinesia. However, since it is thought that it represents a mechanism that is linked to the susceptibility to interference during consolidation of a memory trace, it is an important process to consider when therapeutic interventions, such as psychotherapy, are administered. Perhaps a person with an abnormal depotentiation is prone to lose learned effects very easily or on the other end of the spectrum is prone to overload with previously generated unuseful LTP. Perhaps this process partly explains why some disorders and patients are extremely resistant to therapy. The present study seeks to quantify the relationship between LTP and depotentiation in the human brain by using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the cortex of healthy participants. The results provide further evidence that depotentiation can be quantified in humans by use of noninvasive brain stimulation techniques. They provide evidence that a nonfocal rhythmic on its own inefficient stimulation, such as a modified thetaburst stimulation, can depotentiate an associative, focal spike timing-dependent PAS (paired associative stimulation)-induced LTP. Therefore, the depotentiation-like process does not seem to be restricted to specific subgroups of synapses that have undergone LTP before. Most importantly, the induced LTP seems highly correlated with the amount of generated depotentiation in healthy individuals. This might be a phenomenon typical of health and might be distorted in brain pathologies, such as dystonia, or dyskinesias. The ratio of LTP/DP might be a valuable marker for potential distortions of persistence versus deletion of memory traces represented by LTP-like plasticity.

The extinction of conditioned-fear represents a hallmark of current exposure therapies as it has been found to be impaired in people suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anxiety. A large body of knowledge focusing on psychophysiological animal and human studies suggests the involvement of key brain structures that interact via neural oscillations during the acquisition and extinction of fear. Consequently, neural oscillatory correlates of such mechanisms appear relevant regarding the development of novel therapeutic approaches to counterbalance abnormal activity in fear-related brain circuits, which, in turn, could alleviate fear and anxiety symptoms. Here, we provide an account of state-of-the-art neural oscillatory correlates for the conditioning and extinction of fear, and also deal with recent translational efforts aimed at fear extinction by neural oscillatory modulation.

Dystonia can be seen in a number of different phenotypes that may arise from different etiologies. The pathophysiological substrate of dystonia is related to three lines of research. The first postulate a loss of inhibition which may account for the excess of movement and for the overflow phenomena. A second abnormality is sensory dysfunction which is related to the mild sensory complaints in patients with focal dystonias and may be responsible for some of the motor dysfunction. Finally, there are strong pieces of evidence from animal and human studies suggesting that alterations of synaptic plasticity characterized by a disruption of homeostatic plasticity, with a prevailing facilitation of synaptic potentiation may play a pivotal role in primary dystonia. These working hypotheses have been generalized in all form of dystonia. On the other hand, several pieces of evidence now suggest that the pathophysiology may be slightly different in the different types of dystonia. Therefore, in the present review, we would like to discuss the neural mechanisms underlying the different forms of dystonia to disentangle the different weight and role of environmental and predisposing factors.

Therapy resistance of approximately one-third of patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) requires consideration of alternative therapeutic interventions. The article demonstrates the role of the cerebellum in neuropsychiatric disorders and GTS in particular, specifically its role in functions relating to motor and cognitive symptoms. Certain circuits in the cerebellum have been shown to undergo learning-induced changes during conditioning, with cells in the cortex of the cerebellum appearing to decrease their activity whilst those in deep nuclei seem to do the inverse. Evidence exists showing that abnormal excitability of the motor cortex via the cerebellum could be expected to participate in motor tics in GTS possibly due to aberrations in certain structures of involved circuits. The role of the cerebellum in learning and plasticity processes renders it a strategic and valuable structure to consider for brain stimulation when investigating potential treatment options for neuropsychiatric disorders such as GTS. This article puts forth the concept of using non-invasive and invasive brain stimulation techniques as a novel platform for non-pharmacological neuromodulation of GTS symptoms., (© 2015 The British Psychological Society.)

Objective: Idiopathic adult onset cervical dystonia (IAOCD) is considered to be a partially penetrant autosomal dominant genetic condition. Dystonia may result from genetic and environmental factors. In this view, part of the physiology should be an endophenotype stemming from the genetic background. We assessed the most discriminative test to separate patients with IAOCD and healthy controls for further endophenotyping in non-affected 1st degree relatives., Methods: We included patients with IAOCD, their 1st degree relatives and healthy controls. Tests performed: (1) Sensory temporal discrimination (visual, tactile, visuo-tactile), (2) Paired pulse paradigms using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), (3) Mental rotation paradigms., Results: 45 patients with IAOCD, 23 healthy controls and 14 non-affected 1st degree relatives were recruited. Visuo-tactile temporal discrimination separated best between controls and patients as well as between controls and 1st degree relatives. 36% of the latter had an abnormal visuo-tactile temporal discrimination. No difference between patients and healthy controls was found for the other paradigms., Conclusions: Visuo-tactile temporal discrimination separates controls from patients with IAOCD and its 1st degree relatives. 36% of the latter had abnormal visuo-tactile thresholds supporting the role of visuo-tactile temporal discrimination as an endophenotype for IAOCD., Significance: Even though the study was of exploratory design, our findings expand the understanding of endophenotypes in IAOCD., (Copyright © 2017 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Therapy resistance of approximately one-third of patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) requires consideration of alternative therapeutic interventions. This article provides a condensed review of the invasive and non-invasive stimulation techniques that have been applied, to date, for treatment and investigation of GTS. Through this perspective and short review, the article discusses potential novel applications for neurostimulation techniques based on a symptom-guided approach. The concept of considering the physiological basis of specific symptoms when using stimulation techniques will provide a platform for more effective non-pharmacological neuromodulation of symptoms in GTS.

Successful interaction with the environment requires flexible updating of our beliefs about the world. By estimating the likelihood of future events, it is possible to prepare appropriate actions in advance and execute fast, accurate motor responses. According to theoretical proposals, agents track the variability arising from changing environments by computing various forms of uncertainty. Several neuromodulators have been linked to uncertainty signalling, but comprehensive empirical characterisation of their relative contributions to perceptual belief updating, and to the selection of motor responses, is lacking. Here we assess the roles of noradrenaline, acetylcholine, and dopamine within a single, unified computational framework of uncertainty. Using pharmacological interventions in a sample of 128 healthy human volunteers and a hierarchical Bayesian learning model, we characterise the influences of noradrenergic, cholinergic, and dopaminergic receptor antagonism on individual computations of uncertainty during a probabilistic serial reaction time task. We propose that noradrenaline influences learning of uncertain events arising from unexpected changes in the environment. In contrast, acetylcholine balances attribution of uncertainty to chance fluctuations within an environmental context, defined by a stable set of probabilistic associations, or to gross environmental violations following a contextual switch. Dopamine supports the use of uncertainty representations to engender fast, adaptive responses., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The temporal preparation of motor responses to external events (temporal preparation) relies on internal representations of the accumulated elapsed time (temporal representations) before an event occurs and on estimates about its most likely time of occurrence (temporal expectations). The precision (inverse of uncertainty) of temporal preparation, however, is limited by two sources of uncertainty. One is intrinsic to the nervous system and scales with the length of elapsed time such that temporal representations are least precise for longest time durations. The other is external and arises from temporal variability of events in the outside world. The precision of temporal expectations thus decreases if events become more variable in time. It has long been recognized that the processing of time durations within the range of hundreds of milliseconds (interval timing) strongly depends on dopaminergic (DA) transmission. The role of DA for the precision of temporal preparation in humans, however, remains unclear. This study therefore directly assesses the role of DA in the precision of temporal preparation of motor responses in healthy humans. In a placebo-controlled double-blind design using a selective D2-receptor antagonist (sulpiride) and D1/D2 receptor antagonist (haloperidol), participants performed a variable foreperiod reaching task, under different conditions of internal and external temporal uncertainty. DA blockade produced a striking impairment in the ability of extracting temporal expectations across trials and on the precision of temporal representations within a trial. Large Weber fractions for interval timing, estimated by fitting subjective hazard functions, confirmed that this effect was driven by an increased uncertainty in the way participants were experiencing time. This provides novel evidence that DA regulates the precision with which we process time when preparing for an action.

The major link between the visual and motor systems is via the dorsal stream pathways from visual to parietal and frontal areas of the cortex. Although the pathway appears to be indirect, there is evidence that visual input can reach the motor cortex at relatively short latency. To shed some light on its neural basis, we studied the visuomotor interaction using paired transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded from the right first dorsal interosseous in sixteen healthy volunteers. A conditioning stimulus (CS) was applied over the phosphene hotspot of the visual cortex, followed by a test stimulus over the left primary motor cortex (M1) with a random interstimulus interval (ISI) in range 12-40 ms. The effects of paired stimulation were retested during visual and auditory reaction-time tasks (RT). Finally, we measured the effects of a CS on short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI). At rest, a CS over the occiput significantly (P < 0.001) suppressed test MEPs with an ISI in the range 18-40 ms. In the visual RT, inhibition with an ISI of 40 ms (but not 18 ms) was replaced by a time-specific facilitation (P < 0.001), whereas, in the auditory RT, the CS no longer had any effect on MEPs. Finally, an occipital CS facilitated SICI with an ISI of 40 ms (P < 0.01). We conclude that it is possible to study separate functional connections from visual to motor cortices using paired-TMS with an ISI in the range 18-40 ms. The connections are inhibitory at rest and possibly mediated by inhibitory interneurones in the motor cortex. The effect with an ISI of 40 ms reverses into facilitation during a visuomotor RT but not an audiomotor RT. This suggests that it plays a role in visuomotor integration., (© 2015 The Authors. The Journal of Physiology © 2015 The Physiological Society.)

To investigate whether a period of continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) over the supplementary motor area (SMA) induces cortical plasticity and thus improves bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease (PD) in the medication ON and OFF state. In total, 26 patients with Parkinson's disease were tested with both real and sham stimulation. The group was divided into an OFF-medication (4 females, mean age 65 years, disease duration 6 years) and an ON-medication group (7 females, mean age 61 years, disease duration 7 years) with each containing 13 individuals. Both groups were evaluated in terms of electrophysiological (motor-evoked potentials) and behavioural [Purdue Pegboard test (PPT), UPDRS motor subscore] parameters before (baseline condition) and after a 40-second period of real or sham continuous theta burst stimulation over the SMA ON and OFF dopaminergic drugs. Patients in the OFF group demonstrated an improved UPDRS III score (p < 0.05) and a better performance in the PPT for the less affected side (p < 0.025) compared to baseline after real stimulation. However, electrophysiological parameters did not change in either the ON or the OFF state. cTBS over the SMA has a mild effect on motor symptoms of the upper limb in the OFF state of PD patients. In contrast, stimulation did not change cortico-spinal excitability. A lack of change (i.e. no plasticity) to brain stimulation protocols is a known finding in PD. A clinical improvement in the OFF state, however, contrasts with this and the mechanism of these induced changes is worth further exploration.

Humans carry out many daily tasks in a seemingly automatic fashion. However, when unexpected changes in the environment occur, we have the capacity to inhibit prepotent behavior and replace it with an alternative one. Such behavioral flexibility is a hallmark of executive functions. The neurotransmitter dopamine is known to be crucial for fast, efficient, and accurate cognitive flexibility. Despite the perceived similarities between cognitive and motor flexibility, less is known regarding the role of dopamine within the motor domain. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the role of dopamine in motor flexibility. In a double-blind, five-session, within-subject pharmacological experiment, human participants performed an RT task within a probabilistic context that was either predictable or unpredictable. The probabilistic nature of the predictable context resulted in prediction errors. This required participants to replace the prepotent or prepared action with an unprepared action (motor flexibility). The task was overlearned, and changes in context were explicitly instructed, thus controlling for contributions from other dopamine-related processes such as probabilistic or reversal learning and interactions with other types of uncertainty. We found that dopamine receptor blockade by high-dose haloperidol (D1/D2 dopamine receptors) impaired participants' ability to react to unexpected events occurring in a predictable context, which elicit large prediction errors and necessitate motor flexibility. This effect was not observed with selective D2 receptor blockade (sulpiride), with a general increase in tonic dopamine levels (levodopa), or during an unpredictable context, which evoked minimal prediction error. We propose that dopamine is vital in responding to low-level prediction errors about stimulus outcome that requires motor flexibility.

Periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges (PLEDs) on electroencephlography (EEG) usually indicate an acute, diffuse, and severe cerebral insult. Although hyperglycemic hemichorea-hemiballisum (HCHB) and striatal hyperintensity on T1-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) images is an accepted clinical entity, PLEDs have not previously been reported. Herein, we report a 74-year-old man with hyperglycemic HCHB, hyperintense putamen on T1-MR images and PLEDs on EEG. Aggressive sugar control with neuroleptic treatment only slightly improved the severity of HCHB. We also tried titrated oral and intravenous haloperidol, clonazepam, and propranolol sequentially and in combination; however, the effects were poor. Unlike the generally reversibility of hyperglycemic HCHB, the condition was still present 6 months later. Hyperglycemia can cause HCHB and produce subcortical type-PLEDs, which may explain the findings in our patient. In conclusion, PLEDs can be found in patients with hyperglycemic HCHB and striatal hyperintensity on T1-weighted MR images, and the appearance of PLEDs may indicate an irreversible outcome. EEG should be considered in such circumstances., (© EEG and Clinical Neuroscience Society (ECNS) 2014.)

The link between basic physiology and its modulation by cognitive states, such as attention, is poorly understood. A significant association becomes apparent when patients with movement disorders describe experiences with changing their attention focus and the fundamental effect that this has on their motor symptoms. Moreover, frequently used mental strategies for treating such patients, e.g. with task-specific dystonia, widely lack laboratory-based knowledge about physiological mechanisms. In this largely unexplored field, we looked at how the locus of attention, when it changed between internal (locus hand) and external (visual target), influenced excitability in the primary motor cortex (M1) in healthy humans. Intriguingly, both internal and external attention had the capacity to change M1 excitability. Both led to a reduced stimulation-induced GABA-related inhibition and a change in motor evoked potential size, i.e. an overall increased M1 excitability. These previously unreported findings indicated: (i) that cognitive state differentially interacted with M1 physiology, (ii) that our view of distraction (attention locus shifted towards external or distant location), which is used as a prevention or management strategy for use-dependent motor disorders, is too simple and currently unsupported for clinical application, and (iii) the physiological state reached through attention modulation represents an alternative explanation for frequently reported electrophysiology findings in neuropsychiatric disorders, such as an aberrant inhibition., (© 2014 Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)