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The presence of a small number of infected but transcriptionally dormant cells currently thwarts a cure for the more than 35 million individuals infected with HIV. Reactivation of these latently infected cells may result in three fates: 1) cell death due to a viral cytopathic effect, 2) cell death due to immune clearance, or 3) a retreat into latency. Uncovering the dynamics of HIV gene expression and silencing in the latent reservoir will be crucial for developing an HIV-1 cure. Here we identify and characterize an intracellular circuit involving TRIM32, an HIV activator, and miR-155, a microRNA that may promote a return to latency in these transiently activated reservoir cells. Notably, we demonstrate that TRIM32, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, promotes reactivation from latency by directly modifying IκBα, leading to a novel mechanism of NF-κB induction not involving IκB kinase activation., (© 2015 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)

Despite significant advances in our understanding of HIV, a cure has not been realized for the more than 34 million infected with this virus. HIV is incurable because infected individuals harbor cells where the HIV provirus is integrated into the host's DNA but is not actively replicating and thus is not inhibited by antiviral drugs. Similarly, these latent viruses are not detected by the immune system. In this Review, we discuss HIV-1 latency and the mechanisms that allow this pathogenic retrovirus to hide and persist by exploiting the cellular vehicles of immunological memory., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The possible emergence of resistance to the only available drug for schistosomiasis spurs drug discovery that has been recently incentivized by the availability of improved transcriptome and genome sequence information. Transient RNAi has emerged as a straightforward and important technique to interrogate that information through decreased or loss of gene function and identify potential drug targets. To date, RNAi studies in schistosome stages infecting humans have focused on single (or up to 3) genes of interest. Therefore, in the context of standardizing larger RNAi screens, data are limited on the extent of possible off-targeting effects, gene-to-gene variability in RNAi efficiency and the operational capabilities and limits of RNAi., Methodology/principal Findings: We investigated in vitro the sensitivity and selectivity of RNAi using double-stranded (ds)RNA (approximately 500 bp) designed to target 11 Schistosoma mansoni genes that are expressed in different tissues; the gut, tegument and otherwise. Among the genes investigated were 5 that had been previously predicted to be essential for parasite survival. We employed mechanically transformed schistosomula that are relevant to parasitism in humans, amenable to screen automation and easier to obtain in greater numbers than adult parasites. The operational parameters investigated included defined culture media for optimal parasite maintenance, transfection strategy, time- and dose-dependency of RNAi, and dosing limits. Of 7 defined culture media tested, Basch Medium 169 was optimal for parasite maintenance. RNAi was best achieved by co-incubating parasites and dsRNA (standardized to 30 µg/ml for 6 days); electroporation provided no added benefit. RNAi, including interference of more than one transcript, was selective to the gene target(s) within the pools of transcripts representative of each tissue. Concentrations of dsRNA above 90 µg/ml were directly toxic. RNAi efficiency was transcript-dependent (from 40 to >75% knockdown relative to controls) and this may have contributed to the lack of obvious phenotypes observed, even after prolonged incubations of 3 weeks. Within minutes of their mechanical preparation from cercariae, schistosomula accumulated fluorescent macromolecules in the gut indicating that the gut is an important route through which RNAi is expedited in the developing parasite., Conclusions: Transient RNAi operates gene-selectively in S. mansoni newly transformed schistosomula yet the sensitivity of individual gene targets varies. These findings and the operational parameters defined will facilitate larger RNAi screens.

Background: Praziquantel (PZQ) is the only widely available drug to treat schistosomiasis. Given the potential for drug resistance, it is prudent to search for novel therapeutics. Identification of anti-schistosomal chemicals has traditionally relied on phenotypic (whole organism) screening with adult worms in vitro and/or animal models of disease-tools that limit automation and throughput with modern microtiter plate-formatted compound libraries., Methods: A partially automated, three-component phenotypic screen workflow is presented that utilizes at its apex the schistosomular stage of the parasite adapted to a 96-well plate format with a throughput of 640 compounds per month. Hits that arise are subsequently screened in vitro against adult parasites and finally for efficacy in a murine model of disease. Two GO/NO GO criteria filters in the workflow prioritize hit compounds for tests in the animal disease model in accordance with a target drug profile that demands short-course oral therapy. The screen workflow was inaugurated with 2,160 chemically diverse natural and synthetic compounds, of which 821 are drugs already approved for human use. This affords a unique starting point to 'reposition' (re-profile) drugs as anti-schistosomals with potential savings in development timelines and costs., Findings: Multiple and dynamic phenotypes could be categorized for schistosomula and adults in vitro, and a diverse set of 'hit' drugs and chemistries were identified, including anti-schistosomals, anthelmintics, antibiotics, and neuromodulators. Of those hits prioritized for tests in the animal disease model, a number of leads were identified, one of which compares reasonably well with PZQ in significantly decreasing worm and egg burdens, and disease-associated pathology. Data arising from the three components of the screen are posted online as a community resource., Conclusions: To accelerate the identification of novel anti-schistosomals, we have developed a partially automated screen workflow that interfaces schistosomula with microtiter plate-formatted compound libraries. The workflow has identified various compounds and drugs as hits in vitro and leads, with the prescribed oral efficacy, in vivo. Efforts to improve throughput, automation, and rigor of the screening workflow are ongoing.

Ultraviolet B (UVB, 280-315nm) radiation is detrimental to both of larvae of the digenetic trematode Schistosoma mansoni and its snail intermediate host, Biomphalaria glabrata. We explored effects of UVB on three aspects of the interaction between host and parasite: survival of infected snails, innate susceptibility and resistance of snails to infection, and acquired resistance induced by irradiated miracidia. Snails infected for 1 week showed significantly lower survival than uninfected snails following irradiation with a range of UVB intensities. In contrast to known immunomodulatory effects in vertebrates, an effect of UVB on susceptibility or resistance of snails to infection could not be conclusively demonstrated. Finally, exposure of susceptible snails to UVB-irradiated miracidia failed to induce resistance to a subsequent challenge with nonirradiated miracidia, a result similar to that reported previously with ionizing radiation.

Schistosoma mansoni occurs in tropical regions where levels of ultraviolet B (UVB; 290-320 nm) light are elevated. However, the effects of UVB on parasite transmission are unknown. This study examines effects of UVB on the miracidia and sporocysts of S. mansoni, focusing specifically on intramolluscan development, infectivity, and the ability to photoreactivate (repair DNA damage using visible light). Histology revealed that miracidia irradiated with 861 J x m(-2) underwent abnormal development after penetrating Biomphalaria glabrata snails. Total number of sporocysts in snail tissues decreased as a function of time postinfection (PI), among both nonirradiated and irradiated parasites; however, this decrease was greater in the latter. Moreover, whereas the proportion alive of nonirradiated sporocysts increased PI, that of irradiated sporocysts, i.e., derived from irradiated miracidia, decreased. Irradiation of miracidia with UVB resulted in decreased prevalence of patent infection (defined by presence of daughter sporocysts) in a dose-dependent manner, and no infections occurred at a dose of 861 J x m(-2). Like many aquatic organisms, including the snail host, parasites were able to photoreactivate if exposed to visible light following UVB irradiation, even subsequent to penetrating snails. These photoreactivation results suggest cyclobutane-pyrimidine dimers in DNA as the primary mechanism of UVB damage, and implicate photoreactivation, rather than nucleotide excision, as the main repair process in S. mansoni.

Although Schistosoma mansoni occurs mainly in the tropics, where intense levels of solar radiation are present, the impact of ultraviolet (UV) light on schistosome transmission is not known. The purpose of this study was to investigate potential effects of UVB (290-320nm) on juvenile Biomphalaria glabrata, the snail intermediate host of S. mansoni. Albino and wild-type snails were exposed to doses of UVB from UV-fluorescent lamps, and the following were measured: survival, photoreactivation (light-mediated DNA repair), effects on feeding behavior, and morphological tissue abnormalities. Irradiation with UVB is lethal to B. glabrata in a dose-dependent manner. Exposure to white light subsequent to UVB irradiation enhances survival, probably by photoreactivation. The shell offers some, but not complete, protection. Experiments in which UVB transmittance through the shell was blocked with black nail polish suggest that injury to both exposed (headfoot) and shell-enclosed (mantle and visceral mass) tissues contributes to mortality in lethally irradiated snails. Wild-type (pigmented) snails are less susceptible to lethal effects of UVB than albino snails, and they may be more capable of photoreactivation. UVB exposure inhibits snail feeding behavior, and causes tentacle forks and growths on the headfoot. Thus, UVB may influence the life cycle of S. mansoni by both lethal and sub-lethal damage to the snail intermediate host. However, the ability of snails to photoreactivate may mitigate these effects.